Diagnostic paleoradiology of mummified tissue: interpretation and pitfalls

• Published in: Canadian Association of Radiologists journal Vol. 55; no. 4; pp. 218 - 227
• Main Authors: Rühli, Frank J, Chhem, Rethy K, Böni, Thomas
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: United States SAGE PUBLICATIONS, INC 01.10.2004
• Subjects: Animals; History, Ancient; Humans; Medical diagnosis; Mummies; Mummies - diagnostic imaging; Paleopathology - methods; Paleoradiology; Radiography - methods; Tomography, X-Ray Computed
• ISSN: 0846-5371; 1488-2361

Although guidelines for the examination of nonclinical skeletal material by CT have been validated,36 the accuracy and reliability of CT in the investigation of mummified tissues has yet to be established. Current CT protocols for mummy investigations are listed in Table 2.17,44,48,63-65 For Rubinstein et al,66 the ideal protocol for CT of mummies should provide the "thinnest slice, the highest spatial resolution rather than contrast resolution, and a low radiation dose," which is similar to the protocol suggested earlier by Ruff and Leo.36 In addition, initial scout view images in main planes are important to determine whole-body CT planning, and it is also critical to choose adequate parameters to protect the thermal capability of the x-ray tube.48 3D CT has been applied to mummies79-83 mainly to conduct a virtual unwrapping,5,7,17,37,40,44,48,63,84,85 to identify internal anatomy,17,48,63,82,86 to detect pathologies,17,87,88 and to calculate endocranial capacity80 or craniometric indices.48 These reconstruction techniques allow a geometric assessment of wrappings, confirm the presence of wads of stuffing, display the mummy's hairstyle, help evaluate a cranial bone fragment as associated with a cause of death, depict subtle postmortem soft-tissue lesion of an ear or the base of the skull, and help assess the status of brain and intestine removal.16,63 3D CT has also provided a precise image of a cleft lip in a child's mummy17 and has been used to measure the precise stature of mummies.48 When, in occasional cases, a wooden stick was inserted into the spinal canal during the process of embalming, CT then has helped to determine its location and the status of the spine itself.7,48 Dental attrition in mummies can also be assessed.90 Finally, the state of preservation of teeth48 has been evaluated using orthopantomographic or orthoradial 2D CT.91 Often the external and internal genitalia are no longer present in artificial mummies because of embalming practices and the mummies are, in addition, still wrapped. Cesarani et al106 were able to determine sex in 11 of 13 examined mummies, but others have had less accurate results.17,51 In one study, the penis of the mummy could be seen on radiographs, in contrast to the female painting of its sarcophagus.107 Braunstein et al59 were able to determine the sex of half of a series of 12 royal mummies using conventional radiography. In bog bodies, sex determination was not achieved in 35% of the sample.108 If the pelvic girdle is intact, radiography performed in "standardized" planes may be useful in the determination of sex. Furthermore, CT-generated cephalometric data can be used to determine the sex of a mummy.109 Virtual CT reconstruction of intact pelvic bone may help too.