Beat-to-Beat Blood Pressure Estimation by Photoplethysmography and Its Interpretation

• Published in: Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) Vol. 22; no. 18; p. 7037
• Main Authors: Fleischhauer, Vincent, Feldheiser, Aarne, Zaunseder, Sebastian
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: Basel MDPI AG 01.09.2022; MDPI
• Subjects: Algorithms; Blood pressure; Datasets; estimation; Forecasts and trends; Machine learning; Measurement techniques; Methods; photoplethysmography; Physiology; pulse decomposition analysis; pulse wave decomposition; Shapley values; Vital signs; Australia; Germany
• ISSN: 1424-8220; 1424-8220
• DOI: 10.3390/s22187037

Blood pressure (BP) is among the most important vital signals. Estimation of absolute BP solely using photoplethysmography (PPG) has gained immense attention over the last years. Available works differ in terms of used features as well as classifiers and bear large differences in their results. This work aims to provide a machine learning method for absolute BP estimation, its interpretation using computational methods and its critical appraisal in face of the current literature. We used data from three different sources including 273 subjects and 259,986 single beats. We extracted multiple features from PPG signals and its derivatives. BP was estimated by xgboost regression. For interpretation we used Shapley additive values (SHAP). Absolute systolic BP estimation using a strict separation of subjects yielded a mean absolute error of 9.456mmHg and correlation of 0.730. The results markedly improve if data separation is changed (MAE: 6.366mmHg, r: 0.874). Interpretation by means of SHAP revealed four features from PPG, its derivation and its decomposition to be most relevant. The presented approach depicts a general way to interpret multivariate prediction algorithms and reveals certain features to be valuable for absolute BP estimation. Our work underlines the considerable impact of data selection and of training/testing separation, which must be considered in detail when algorithms are to be compared. In order to make our work traceable, we have made all methods available to the public.