Biological sex and menstrual cycle phase modulation of cortisol levels and psychiatric symptoms in a non-clinical sample of young adults

• Published in: Psychiatry research Vol. 197; no. 3; pp. 314 - 321
• Main Authors: Walder, Deborah J., Statucka, Marta, Daly, Maureen P., Axen, Kathleen, Haber, Margalit
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: Kidlington Elsevier Ireland Ltd 30.05.2012; Elsevier
• Subjects: Adult and adolescent clinical studies; Behavioral Symptoms - metabolism; Biological and medical sciences; Female; Gonadal; Healthy; Humans; Hydrocortisone - metabolism; Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal; Male; Medical sciences; Menstrual Cycle - metabolism; Miscellaneous; Neurohormone; Personality; Personality Inventory - statistics & numerical data; Psychiatric Status Rating Scales; Psychiatry; Psychology. Psychoanalysis. Psychiatry; Psychopathology. Psychiatry; Saliva - metabolism; Self Report; Sex Characteristics; Sex differences; Stress; Time Factors; Young Adult; Gonadal; Sex differences; Neurohormone; Personality; Stress; Healthy; Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal; Endocrine gland; Central nervous system; Sex; Neuroendocrine regulation; Hydrocortisone; Glucocorticoid; Encephalon; Human; Corticosteroid; Menstrual cycle; Healthy subject; Steroid hormone; Antiinflammatory agent; Hypothalamohypophysogonadal axis; Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal; Symptomatology; Adrenal hormone; Young adult; Mental disorder
• ISSN: 0165-1781; 1872-7123
• DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2011.09.009

Prior research examined the complex, bidirectional interplay of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axes and their roles in (clinical) cognitive/behavioral functions. Less well understood are contemporaneous relationships in non-clinical samples. This pilot study explored cortisol in relation to psychiatric symptoms/personality as a function of self-reported menstrual cycle phase and sex differences in a non-clinical, young adult sample. Consistent with literature and hypotheses, cortisol levels were lowest during early-follicular, intermediary during late-follicular, and highest during mid-luteal phases (not significant), and greater among males than early-follicular females. An acute stressor uniformly affected cortisol across phases and sex, though magnitude and time course differed. Psychiatric symptoms were greater among early-follicular/late-follicular females versus males, and early-follicular and/or late-follicular versus mid-luteal. Contrary to hypotheses, positive psychotic-like symptoms were greater among males than (mid-luteal) females. Cortisol inversely related to early-follicular symptoms, and directly related to late-follicular/mid-luteal symptoms. Results suggest menstrual cycle phase modulates non-clinical psychiatric symptomatology and HPA activity. Findings tentatively bolster a dimensional/continuum model of psychopathology with implications for understanding neurobiological underpinnings and risk/protective factors for mental/physical health conditions, particularly those marked by sex differences and neuroendocrine dysfunction (depression/schizophrenia/Alzheimer's/multiple sclerosis). We speculate a dose–response cortisol effect on symptoms, modulated by endogenous gonadal hormones via gene expression.