Behavioral trade‐offs and multitasking by elk in relation to predation risk from Mexican gray wolves

• Published in: Ecology and evolution Vol. 14; no. 5; pp. e11383 - n/a
• Main Authors: Farley, Zachary J., Thompson, Cara J., Boyle, Scott T., Tatman, Nicole M., Cain, James W.
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: England John Wiley & Sons, Inc 01.05.2024; John Wiley and Sons Inc; Wiley
• Subjects: Animal populations; Animal reproduction; antipredator behavior; Bears; Behavioural Ecology; Canis lupus baileyi; Cervus canadensis; Community Ecology; Elk; Females; foraging; Foraging behavior; Foraging habitats; Habitat utilization; Hypotheses; Mothers; Multitasking; Parturition; Predation; predation risk; Predator-prey interactions; Predators; predator–prey; Prey; Resource availability; Risk; Synchronism; Synchronization; Tradeoffs; Trophic Interactions; Vigilance; Wolves; Zoology; New Mexico; United States > US; Arizona; antipredator behavior; foraging; vigilance; predation risk; multitasking; predator–prey
• ISSN: 2045-7758; 2045-7758
• DOI: 10.1002/ece3.11383

Predator non‐consumptive effects (NCE) can alter prey foraging time and habitat use, potentially reducing fitness. Prey can mitigate NCEs by increasing vigilance, chewing‐vigilance synchronization, and spatiotemporal avoidance of predators. We quantified the relationship between Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) predation risk and elk (Cervus canadensis) behavior. We conducted behavioral observations on adult female elk and developed predation risk indices using GPS collar data from Mexican wolves, locations of elk killed by wolves, and landscape covariates. We compared a priori models to determine the best predictors of adult female behavior and multitasking. Metrics that quantified both spatial and temporal predation risk were the most predictive. Vigilance was positively associated with increased predation risk. The effect of predation risk on foraging and resting differed across diurnal periods. During midday when wolf activity was lower, the probability of foraging increased while resting decreased in high‐risk areas. During crepuscular periods when elk and wolves were most active, increased predation risk was associated with increased vigilance and slight decreases in foraging. Our results suggest elk are temporally avoiding predation risk from Mexican wolves by trading resting for foraging, a trade‐off often not evaluated in behavioral studies. Probability of multitasking depended on canopy openness and an interaction between maternal period and predation risk; multitasking decreased prior to parturition and increased post parturition in high‐risk areas. Openness was inversely related to multitasking. These results suggest adult female elk are altering the type of vigilance used depending on resource availability/quality, current energetic needs, and predation risk. Our results highlight potentially important, but often‐excluded behaviors and trade‐offs prey species may use to reduce the indirect effects of predation and contribute additional context to our understanding of predator–prey dynamics. We quantified the effects of the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) predation risk on elk (Cervus canadensis) behavior in the southwestern United States. Metrics that quantified both spatial and temporal predation risk were top predictors in both datasets. During midday when wolf activity was relatively low, the probability of foraging increased while resting decreased, in areas with high spatial predation risk. During crepuscular periods when elk and wolves were most active, increased predation risk was associated with increased vigilance and slight decreases in foraging. The probability of multitasking increased with predation risk, suggesting that adult female elk may be offsetting the non‐consumptive effects of risk on feeding time.