Tryptophan metabolism as a ‘reflex’ feature of neuroimmune communication: Sensor and effector functions for the indoleamine‐2, 3‐dioxygenase kynurenine pathway

• Published in: Journal of neurochemistry Vol. 168; no. 9; pp. 3333 - 3357
• Main Authors: Stone, Trevor W., Williams, Richard O.
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: England Blackwell Publishing Ltd 01.09.2024
• Subjects: Acids; Animals; Aryl hydrocarbon receptors; Central nervous system; Damage tolerance; Developmental plasticity; Dioxygenase; Glucocorticoids; Glutamate receptors; Glutamic acid receptors (ionotropic); Humans; Immune system; immune tolerance; Immunological tolerance; indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase; Indoleamine-Pyrrole 2,3,-Dioxygenase - metabolism; Inflammation; Kynurenic acid; kynurenine; Kynurenine - metabolism; Metabolism; Metabolites; Microorganisms; N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid receptors; Neurodegenerative diseases; Neuroimmunomodulation - physiology; NMDA receptors; Quinolinic acid; Receptor mechanisms; Receptors; Signal Transduction - physiology; Tryptophan; Tryptophan - metabolism; quinolinic acid; immune tolerance; kynurenine; indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase; NMDA receptors; kynurenic acid
• ISSN: 0022-3042; 1471-4159; 1471-4159
• DOI: 10.1111/jnc.16015

Although the central nervous system (CNS) and immune system were regarded as independent entities, it is now clear that immune system cells can influence the CNS, and neuroglial activity influences the immune system. Despite the many clinical implications for this ‘neuroimmune interface’, its detailed operation at the molecular level remains unclear. This narrative review focuses on the metabolism of tryptophan along the kynurenine pathway, since its products have critical actions in both the nervous and immune systems, placing it in a unique position to influence neuroimmune communication. In particular, since the kynurenine pathway is activated by pro‐inflammatory mediators, it is proposed that physical and psychological stressors are the stimuli of an organismal protective reflex, with kynurenine metabolites as the effector arm co‐ordinating protective neural and immune system responses. After a brief review of the neuroimmune interface, the general perception of tryptophan metabolism along the kynurenine pathway is expanded to emphasize this environmentally driven perspective. The initial enzymes in the kynurenine pathway include indoleamine‐2,3‐dioxygenase (IDO1), which is induced by tissue damage, inflammatory mediators or microbial products, and tryptophan‐2,3‐dioxygenase (TDO), which is induced by stress‐induced glucocorticoids. In the immune system, kynurenic acid modulates leucocyte differentiation, inflammatory balance and immune tolerance by activating aryl hydrocarbon receptors and modulates pain via the GPR35 protein. In the CNS, quinolinic acid activates N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate (NMDA)‐sensitive glutamate receptors, whereas kynurenic acid is an antagonist: the balance between glutamate, quinolinic acid and kynurenic acid is a significant regulator of CNS function and plasticity. The concept of kynurenine and its metabolites as mediators of a reflex coordinated protection against stress helps to understand the variety and breadth of their activity. It should also help to understand the pathological origin of some psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases involving the immune system and CNS, facilitating the development of new pharmacological strategies for treatment. The kynurenine pathway functions as a stress‐protection reflex circuit. Indoleamine‐2‐3‐dioxygenase (IDO) is induced by ‘Physical Stressors’ such as infection or tissue damage; tryptophan‐2,3‐dioxygenase (TDO) is activated by psychological pressures via glucocorticosteroids, or elevated dietary tryptophan. These initiate a co‐ordinated whole‐body reflex, with kynurenine metabolites as the effectors. Kynurenic acid regulates CNS excitability via glutamate blockade or GPR35 activation and modulates immunological activity by inhibiting TNF and promoting tolerance. Quinolinic acid increases CNS excitability, oxidative stress and chemokine production. The kynurenate–quinolinate balance compensates for over‐ or under‐activity in the CNS or immune systems.