A 26-Year Study of Restraint Fatalities Among Children and Adolescents in the United States: A Failure of Organizational Structures and Processes

• Published in: Child & youth care forum Vol. 51; no. 3; pp. 661 - 680
• Main Authors: Nunno, Michael A., McCabe, Lisa A., Izzo, Charles V., Smith, Elliott G., Sellers, Deborah E., Holden, Martha J.
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: New York Springer US 01.06.2022; Springer; Springer Nature B.V
• Subjects: Activism; Adolescents; Advocacy; Behavioral Science and Psychology; Child and School Psychology; Child welfare; Children; Death; Disability; Educational programs; Failure; Fatalities; Government agencies; High risk; Incidence; Journalism; Longitudinal Studies; Medicine; Mental health services; Organizational structure; Original Paper; People with disabilities; Personal safety; Physical education; Physical restraints; Prioritizing; Psychological safety; Psychology; Safety Equipment; Security (Psychology); Transparency; United States > US
• ISSN: 1053-1890; 1573-3319
• DOI: 10.1007/s10566-021-09646-w

Background Physical and mechanical restraints used in treatment, care, education, and corrections programs for children are high-risk interventions primarily due to their adverse physical, emotional, and fatal consequences. Objective This study explores the conditions and circumstances of restraint-related fatalities in the United States by asking (1) Who are the children that died due to physical restraint? and (2) How did they die? Method The study employs internet search systems to discover and compile information about restraint-related fatalities of children and youth up to 18 years of age from reputable journalism sources, advocacy groups, activists, and governmental and non-governmental agencies. The child cohort from a published study of restraint fatalities in the United States from 1993 to 2003 is combined with restraint fatalities from 2004 to 2018. This study’s scope has expanded to include restraint deaths in community schools, as well as undiscovered restraint deaths from 1993 to 2003 not in the 2006 study. Results Seventy-nine restraint-related fatalities occurred over the 26-year period from across a spectrum of children’s out-of-home child welfare, corrections, mental health and disability services. The research provides a data snapshot and examples of how fatalities unfold and their consequences for staff and agencies. Practice recommendations are offered to increase safety and transparency. Conclusions The study postulates that restraint fatalities result from a confluence of medical, psychological, and organizational causes; such as cultures prioritizing control, ignoring risk, using dangerous techniques, as well as agencies that lack structures, processes, procedures, and resources to promote learning and to ensure physical and psychological safety.