Machine-Learning-Enabled Diagnostics with Improved Visualization of Disease Lesions in Chest X-ray Images

• Published in: Diagnostics (Basel) Vol. 14; no. 16; p. 1699
• Main Authors: Rahman, Md Fashiar, Tseng, Tzu-Liang (Bill), Pokojovy, Michael, McCaffrey, Peter, Walser, Eric, Moen, Scott, Vo, Alex, Ho, Johnny C
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: Basel MDPI AG 06.08.2024; MDPI
• Subjects: Accuracy; Algorithms; Artificial intelligence; Automation; Bacterial pneumonia; bacterial/viral infection; class activation map (CAM); Classification; convolutional neural networks (CNNs); Coronaviruses; COVID-19; CT imaging; Datasets; Deep learning; Diagnostic imaging; Disease; disease diagnosis; Diseases; Health aspects; Machine learning; Medical imaging; Medical imaging equipment; Medical research; Neural networks; Patients; Pneumonia; Support vector machines; Technology application; Tuberculosis; Viruses; Visualization; Workloads; United States
• ISSN: 2075-4418; 2075-4418
• DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics14161699

The class activation map (CAM) represents the neural-network-derived region of interest, which can help clarify the mechanism of the convolutional neural network’s determination of any class of interest. In medical imaging, it can help medical practitioners diagnose diseases like COVID-19 or pneumonia by highlighting the suspicious regions in Computational Tomography (CT) or chest X-ray (CXR) film. Many contemporary deep learning techniques only focus on COVID-19 classification tasks using CXRs, while few attempt to make it explainable with a saliency map. To fill this research gap, we first propose a VGG-16-architecture-based deep learning approach in combination with image enhancement, segmentation-based region of interest (ROI) cropping, and data augmentation steps to enhance classification accuracy. Later, a multi-layer Gradient CAM (ML-Grad-CAM) algorithm is integrated to generate a class-specific saliency map for improved visualization in CXR images. We also define and calculate a Severity Assessment Index (SAI) from the saliency map to quantitatively measure infection severity. The trained model achieved an accuracy score of 96.44% for the three-class CXR classification task, i.e., COVID-19, pneumonia, and normal (healthy patients), outperforming many existing techniques in the literature. The saliency maps generated from the proposed ML-GRAD-CAM algorithm are compared with the original Gran-CAM algorithm.