Epigenetic developmental mechanisms underlying sex differences in cancer

• Published in: The Journal of clinical investigation Vol. 134; no. 13
• Main Authors: Rubin, Joshua B, Abou-Antoun, Tamara, Ippolito, Joseph E, Llaci, Lorida, Marquez, Camryn T, Wong, Jason P, Yang, Lihua
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: United States American Society for Clinical Investigation 01.07.2024
• Subjects: Animals; Cancer; Care and treatment; Diagnosis; Epigenesis, Genetic; Epigenetic inheritance; Female; Genomic Imprinting; Gonadal Steroid Hormones - metabolism; Health aspects; Humans; Male; Neoplasms - genetics; Review Series; Sex Characteristics; X Chromosome Inactivation; United States
• ISSN: 1558-8238; 0021-9738; 1558-8238
• DOI: 10.1172/JCI180071

Cancer risk is modulated by hereditary and somatic mutations, exposures, age, sex, and gender. The mechanisms by which sex and gender work alone and in combination with other cancer risk factors remain underexplored. In general, cancers that occur in both the male and female sexes occur more commonly in XY compared with XX individuals, regardless of genetic ancestry, geographic location, and age. Moreover, XY individuals are less frequently cured of their cancers, highlighting the need for a greater understanding of sex and gender effects in oncology. This will be necessary for optimal laboratory and clinical cancer investigations. To that end, we review the epigenetics of sexual differentiation and its effect on cancer hallmark pathways throughout life. Specifically, we will touch on how sex differences in metabolism, immunity, pluripotency, and tumor suppressor functions are patterned through the epigenetic effects of imprinting, sex chromosome complement, X inactivation, genes escaping X inactivation, sex hormones, and life history.