Human-induced transformation of chernozems in the Central Russian Upland: a role of benchmark and nearly-benchmark soils in assessing

• Published in: Geoderma Regional Vol. 41; p. e00971
• Main Authors: Chendev, Yu.G., Smirnova, M.A., Gennadiev, A.N.
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: Elsevier B.V 01.06.2025
• Subjects: Forest-steppe chernozems; Organic carbon stocks; Soil bulk density; Soil carbonates; Soil conservation; Soil monitoring; Forest-steppe chernozems; Soil monitoring; Soil carbonates; Soil bulk density; Organic carbon stocks; Soil conservation
• ISSN: 2352-0094; 2352-0094
• DOI: 10.1016/j.geodrs.2025.e00971

Evaluating the human-induced transformation of chernozems — the most fertile soils in the world — requires the presence of undisturbed benchmark soils for comparison. Traditionally, such benchmarks are found within protected areas. However, given the near-total agricultural development of the chernozem zone, including the Central Russian Upland, protected areas with chernozems are scarce and cover limited extents. In this context, near-benchmark chernozems — those that have never been ploughed but are located in hayfields and pastures — can serve as valuable references. These soils, though subject to minimal agricultural use (e.g., mowing and grazing), retain properties closely resembling those of benchmark chernozems. This study presents a comparative analysis of the morphological, physical, and chemical properties of: a) chernozems in protected areas (benchmark chernozems); b) never-ploughed chernozems in hayfields and pastures (near-benchmark chernozems); and c) ploughed chernozems. The findings reveal the extent and direction of human-induced transformation in chernozem soils. Ploughing leads to soil compaction at depths of 20–30 cm, reduced organic carbon stocks (especially in the upper 50 cm), and upward movement of soil carbonates. In hayfields and pastures, grazing and periodic mowing cause compaction to a depth of 50 cm and similar upward migration of soil carbonates. Soils under hayfields and pastures show no significant differences from protected chernozems in terms of organic carbon stocks (0–20 cm, 0–50 cm, 1 m, and 2 m layers) and morphological properties. Thus, chernozems under hayfields and pastures, despite minor anthropogenic impacts, retain many properties similar to those of protected soils. They are valuable for reconstructing the natural characteristics of pre-industrial chernozems and can serve as benchmarks for assessing the transformation of arable chernozems. These findings underscore the need to preserve and expand protected areas with never-ploughed chernozems and highlight the importance of developing sustainable land-use strategies to prevent soil degradation. •Near-benchmark chernozems in hayfields and pastures closely resemble protected benchmark soils.•Ploughing reduces organic carbon stocks and increases soil compaction in chernozems.•Anthropogenic impacts cause upward migration of soil carbonates in chernozems.•Urgent need to protect never-ploughed chernozems and promote sustainable land-use practices.