The Effect of Feelings of Being Watched on Subjective Happiness and Social Preferences: From a Survey Experiment Using Crowdsourcing
In this study, to feel someone is watching me is defined as the “feeling of being watched.” Using crowdsourcing, we investigated the effects of feelings of being watched by a first-party, secondparty, third-party, and supernatural entity on social preferences and subjective happiness.The results sho...
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| Published in | Socio-Informatics Vol. 11; no. 3; pp. 1 - 17 |
|---|---|
| Main Author | |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | Japanese |
| Published |
The Society of Socio-Informatics
31.03.2023
一般社団法人 社会情報学会 |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
| ISSN | 2187-2775 2432-2148 |
| DOI | 10.14836/ssi.11.3_1 |
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| Abstract | In this study, to feel someone is watching me is defined as the “feeling of being watched.” Using crowdsourcing, we investigated the effects of feelings of being watched by a first-party, secondparty, third-party, and supernatural entity on social preferences and subjective happiness.The results showed that the intuitive factor positively impacted subjective happiness, as a variable partially mediated by the feeling of being watched by supernatural beings. In contrast, the intuitive factor positively impacted prosociality, as a variable completely mediated by the feeling of being watched by supernatural beings. Therefore, it is clear that the intuitive feelings of being watched by supernatural entities are essential in both cases.These results suggest that subjective happiness and social preferences may differ depending on what is assumed as monitoring subjects and how we recognize them. In particular, they also suggest the need to reconsider the contemporary significance of supernatural beings. |
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| AbstractList | In this study, to feel someone is watching me is defined as the “feeling of being watched.” Using crowdsourcing, we investigated the effects of feelings of being watched by a first-party, secondparty, third-party, and supernatural entity on social preferences and subjective happiness.The results showed that the intuitive factor positively impacted subjective happiness, as a variable partially mediated by the feeling of being watched by supernatural beings. In contrast, the intuitive factor positively impacted prosociality, as a variable completely mediated by the feeling of being watched by supernatural beings. Therefore, it is clear that the intuitive feelings of being watched by supernatural entities are essential in both cases.These results suggest that subjective happiness and social preferences may differ depending on what is assumed as monitoring subjects and how we recognize them. In particular, they also suggest the need to reconsider the contemporary significance of supernatural beings.
本研究においては，「誰かに見られていると感じること」を「被監視感」と定義する。その上で，第１者被監視感・第２者被監視感・第３者被監視感などの社会的監視と，超自然的存在被監視感が社会的選好並びに主観的幸福度に対して与える影響について，クラウドソーシングを用いて調査した。主観的幸福度に対して，被監視感を媒介変数として分析を行った結果，直感性因子が超自然的存在被監視感を部分媒介変数として主観的幸福度にポジティブな影響を与えることが明らかとなった。同様に，社会的選好に対しては，直感性因子が超自然的存在被監視感を完全媒介変数として向社会性にポジティブな影響を与えることが明らかとなった。したがって，いずれも直感的に超自然的存在による被監視感を抱くことが重要であるといえる。これらの結果は，監視主体として想定される存在により，主観的幸福度ならびに社会的選好が異なり得ることを指摘しており，特に超自然的存在の現代的な意義について再検討する必要があることを示唆している。 In this study, to feel someone is watching me is defined as the “feeling of being watched.” Using crowdsourcing, we investigated the effects of feelings of being watched by a first-party, secondparty, third-party, and supernatural entity on social preferences and subjective happiness.The results showed that the intuitive factor positively impacted subjective happiness, as a variable partially mediated by the feeling of being watched by supernatural beings. In contrast, the intuitive factor positively impacted prosociality, as a variable completely mediated by the feeling of being watched by supernatural beings. Therefore, it is clear that the intuitive feelings of being watched by supernatural entities are essential in both cases.These results suggest that subjective happiness and social preferences may differ depending on what is assumed as monitoring subjects and how we recognize them. In particular, they also suggest the need to reconsider the contemporary significance of supernatural beings. |
| Author | GOTO, Akira |
| Author_FL | 後藤 晶 |
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| Copyright | 2023 The Society of Socio-Informatics |
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Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, Princeton University Press. (河田順一訳『哲学する民主主義——伝統と改革の市民的構造』NTT出版, 2001年) Schimmack, U. (2008). The structure of subjective well-being. The science of subjective well-being, 54, 97-123. Epstein, S., Pacini, R., Denes-Raj, V., & Heier, H. (1996). Individual differences in intuitive—experiential and analytical—rational thinking styles. Journal of personality and social psychology, 71 (2), 390-405. Johnson, D.D. (2005). God's punishment and public goods. human Nature, 16 (4), 410-446. 長谷川眞理子. (2014). 「進化生物学から見た宗教的概念の心的基盤」in (編) 井上順孝, 『21世紀の宗教研究：脳科学・進化生物学と宗教学の接点』, 平凡社 大竹文雄, 白石小百合, &筒井義郎. (2010). 日本の幸福度：格差・労働・家族. 日本評論社, 296p. Grafman, J., Cristofori, I., Zhong, W., & Bulbulia, J. (2020). The neural basis of religious cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29 (2), 126-133. McNamara, R.A., Norenzayan, A., & Henrich, J. (2016). Supernatural punishment, in-group biases, and material insecurity: experiments and ethnography from Yasawa, Fiji. Religion, Brain & Behavior, 6 (1), 34-55. 梅谷凌平, 後藤晶, 岡田勇, & 山本仁志. (2020). 公正世界信念がアップストリーム互恵的協力に与える影響の検討. 社会心理学研究, 36 (2), 31-38. UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network. (2022). World Happiness Report, 〈https://worldhappiness.report/〉Accessed 2022, July 7. Evans, J.S.B.T. (2003). In two minds: dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7 (10), 454-459. Ball, K. (2010). Workplace surveillance: An overview. Labor History, 51 (1), 87-106. 内藤まゆみ, 鈴木佳苗, & 坂元章. (2004). 情報処理スタイル (合理性-直観性) 尺度の作成. パーソナリティ研究, 13 (1), 67-78. Johnson, D. (2015). God is watching you: How the fear of God makes us human. Oxford University Press, USA. Bateson, M., Nettle, D., & Roberts, G. (2006). Cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting. Biology letters, 2 (3), 412-414. 後藤晶. (2017c). 超自然的存在による被監視感が主観的幸福度・社会的選好に与える影響：クラウドソーシングを用いた調査から. 行動経済学会第11回大会 小林利行. (2019). 日本人の宗教的意識や行動はどう変わったかISSP国際比較調査「宗教」・日本の結果から. 放送研究と調査, 69 (4), 52-72. Haley, K.J., & Fessler, D. (2005). Nobody's watching? Subtle cues affect generosity in an anonymous dictator game. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26, 245-256. 櫻井義秀. (2014). 人口減少社会日本における希望ときずな：しあわせとソーシャル・キャピタル (〈特集〉しあわせと宗教). 宗教研究, 88 (2), 315-342. Shariff, A.F. & Norenzayan, F (2007) God is Watching You: Priming God Concept Increases Prosocial Behavior in an Anonymous Economic Game, Psychology Science, 18 (9), pp.803-809. 後藤晶. (2017b). 被監視感が主観的幸福度に与える影響：クラウドソーシングを用いたオンライン実験から. In 情報プロフェッショナルシンポジウム予稿集 第14回情報プロフェッショナルシンポジウム (pp.143-148). 一般社団法人 情報科学技術協会. 伊藤高弘, 窪田康平, & 大竹文雄. (2017). 寺院・地蔵・神社の社会・経済的帰結. 大阪大学社会経済研究所Discussion Paper, 995. 1-38. Evans, J.S.B.T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59 (1), 255-278. Fehr, E., & Gächter, S. (2000). Cooperation and punishment in public goods experiments. American Economic Review, 90 (4), 980-994. 後藤晶. & 本田正美. (2018). 監視カメラの社会的許容度に関する一考察. 社会情報学, 6 (3), 63-78. Lerner, M.J. (1980). The belief in a just world. In The Belief in a just World (pp.9-30). Springer, Boston, MA. Hendijani, R., Ghafourian, F., & Attari, I. (2021). The effect of rational-experiential thinking style on stock-flow performance: The mediating role of cognitive reflection. Current Psychology, 1-15. Latane, B. (1970) Field Studies of Altruistic Compliance, Representative Research in Social Psychology, 1, pp.49-61. Murphy, R.O., Ackermann, K.A., & Handgraaf, M. (2011). Measuring social value orientation. Judgment and Decision making, 6 (8), 771-781. Frey, B.S. (2010). Happiness: A revolution in economics. MIT press. Foucault, M., (1975) Surveiller et punir, Naissance de la priso, (訳) 田村俶 (2020).『監獄の誕生—監視と処罰』, 新潮社, 393p. Chen, D.L., Schonger, M., & Wickens, C. (2016). oTree—An open-source platform for laboratory, online, and field experiments. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance, 9, 88-97. 後藤晶. (2021a). 情報社会における監視の許容度に関する分析：監視主体と監視媒体の観点から. 社会情報学, 9 (3), 17-33. 寺島実郎・(一財)日本総合研究所・日本ユニシス株式会社総合技術研究所. (2020). 全47都道府県幸福度ランキング2020年版. 東洋経済新報社, 305p. Johnson, D.D., Stopka, P., & Knights, S. (2003). The puzzle of human cooperation. Nature, 421 (6926), 911-912. 高橋英之, 寺田和憲, & 上出寛子. (2015). かみさまをHAIの視点から捉える. In 人工知能学会全国大会論文集 第29回 (2015) (pp.2K5OS14b2-2K5OS14b2). 一般社団法人 人工知能学会. Monahan, T. (2010). Surveillance in the Time of Insecurity. Rutgers University Press. OECD. (2013). OECD guidelines on measuring subjective well-being. OECD. (訳) 桑原進, 高橋しのぶ (2015), 主観的幸福を測る——OECDガイドライン, 明石書店, 432p. Charky, N. (2015) Eyeballs Have an Interesting Effect on Your Behavior, 〈https://archive.attn.com/stories/2854/eyeballs-effect-on-crime〉Accessed 2022, July 4. 鶴見哲也, 藤井秀道, & 馬奈木俊介. (2021). 幸福の測定：ウェルビーイングを理解する. 中央経済社, 308p. 櫻井義秀. (2017). 人は宗教で幸せになれるのか：ウェル・ビーイングと宗教の分析. 理論と方法, 32 (1), 80-96. |
| References_xml | – reference: OECD. (2013). OECD guidelines on measuring subjective well-being. OECD. (訳) 桑原進, 高橋しのぶ (2015), 主観的幸福を測る——OECDガイドライン, 明石書店, 432p. – reference: Norenzayan, A. (2013). Big gods: How religion transformed cooperation and conflict. Princeton University Press. (監訳) 藤井修平, 松島公房, 荒川歩, (2022) ビッグ・ゴッド：変容する宗教と協力・対立の心理学, 誠心書房, 316p. – reference: Charky, N. (2015) Eyeballs Have an Interesting Effect on Your Behavior, 〈https://archive.attn.com/stories/2854/eyeballs-effect-on-crime〉Accessed 2022, July 4. – reference: Epstein, S., Pacini, R., Denes-Raj, V., & Heier, H. (1996). Individual differences in intuitive—experiential and analytical—rational thinking styles. Journal of personality and social psychology, 71 (2), 390-405. – reference: Atkinson, Q.D., & Bourrat, P. (2011). Beliefs about God, the afterlife and morality support the role of supernatural policing in human cooperation. Evolution and Human Behavior, 32 (1), 41-49. – reference: Foucault, M., (1975) Surveiller et punir, Naissance de la priso, (訳) 田村俶 (2020).『監獄の誕生—監視と処罰』, 新潮社, 393p. – reference: 内藤まゆみ, 鈴木佳苗, & 坂元章. (2004). 情報処理スタイル (合理性-直観性) 尺度の作成. パーソナリティ研究, 13 (1), 67-78. – reference: Shariff, A.F. & Norenzayan, F (2007) God is Watching You: Priming God Concept Increases Prosocial Behavior in an Anonymous Economic Game, Psychology Science, 18 (9), pp.803-809. – reference: 小林利行. (2019). 日本人の宗教的意識や行動はどう変わったかISSP国際比較調査「宗教」・日本の結果から. 放送研究と調査, 69 (4), 52-72. – reference: Johnson, D. (2015). God is watching you: How the fear of God makes us human. Oxford University Press, USA. – reference: 寺島実郎・(一財)日本総合研究所・日本ユニシス株式会社総合技術研究所. (2020). 全47都道府県幸福度ランキング2020年版. 東洋経済新報社, 305p. – reference: 後藤晶. (2017b). 被監視感が主観的幸福度に与える影響：クラウドソーシングを用いたオンライン実験から. In 情報プロフェッショナルシンポジウム予稿集 第14回情報プロフェッショナルシンポジウム (pp.143-148). 一般社団法人 情報科学技術協会. – reference: Hendijani, R., Ghafourian, F., & Attari, I. (2021). The effect of rational-experiential thinking style on stock-flow performance: The mediating role of cognitive reflection. Current Psychology, 1-15. – reference: Frey, B.S. (2010). Happiness: A revolution in economics. MIT press. – reference: Evans, J.S.B.T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59 (1), 255-278. – reference: Latane, B. (1970) Field Studies of Altruistic Compliance, Representative Research in Social Psychology, 1, pp.49-61. – reference: 後藤晶. (2017a). 被監視感が主観的幸福度・経済ゲーム実験に与える影響：クラウドソーシングを用いた実験から. 第1回計算社会科学ワークショップ. – reference: Putnam, R.D., Leonardi, R., & Nanetti, R.Y. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, Princeton University Press. (河田順一訳『哲学する民主主義——伝統と改革の市民的構造』NTT出版, 2001年) – reference: Schimmack, U. (2008). The structure of subjective well-being. The science of subjective well-being, 54, 97-123. – reference: UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network. (2022). World Happiness Report, 〈https://worldhappiness.report/〉Accessed 2022, July 7. – reference: 大竹文雄, 白石小百合, &筒井義郎. (2010). 日本の幸福度：格差・労働・家族. 日本評論社, 296p. – reference: 長谷川眞理子. (2014). 「進化生物学から見た宗教的概念の心的基盤」in (編) 井上順孝, 『21世紀の宗教研究：脳科学・進化生物学と宗教学の接点』, 平凡社 – reference: Murphy, R.O., Ackermann, K.A., & Handgraaf, M. (2011). Measuring social value orientation. Judgment and Decision making, 6 (8), 771-781. – reference: 後藤晶. (2021b). ビッグデータ時代の経済ゲーム実験：クラウドソーシングを用いた大規模公共財ゲーム実験の実施. 情報処理学会論文誌, 62 (5), 1246-1260. – reference: 高橋英之, 寺田和憲, & 上出寛子. (2015). かみさまをHAIの視点から捉える. In 人工知能学会全国大会論文集 第29回 (2015) (pp.2K5OS14b2-2K5OS14b2). 一般社団法人 人工知能学会. – reference: Fehr, E., & Gächter, S. (2000). Cooperation and punishment in public goods experiments. American Economic Review, 90 (4), 980-994. – reference: Bateson, M., Nettle, D., & Roberts, G. (2006). Cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting. Biology letters, 2 (3), 412-414. – reference: Evans, J.S.B.T. (2003). In two minds: dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7 (10), 454-459. – reference: Grafman, J., Cristofori, I., Zhong, W., & Bulbulia, J. (2020). The neural basis of religious cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29 (2), 126-133. – reference: Johnson, D.D., Stopka, P., & Knights, S. (2003). The puzzle of human cooperation. Nature, 421 (6926), 911-912. – reference: 櫻井義秀. (2014). 人口減少社会日本における希望ときずな：しあわせとソーシャル・キャピタル (〈特集〉しあわせと宗教). 宗教研究, 88 (2), 315-342. – reference: 後藤晶. (2021a). 情報社会における監視の許容度に関する分析：監視主体と監視媒体の観点から. 社会情報学, 9 (3), 17-33. – reference: Dear, K., Dutton, K., & Fox, E. (2019). Do ‘watching eyes' influence antisocial behavior? A systematic review & meta-analysis. Evolution and Human Behavior, 40 (3), 269-280. – reference: 後藤晶. & 本田正美. (2018). 監視カメラの社会的許容度に関する一考察. 社会情報学, 6 (3), 63-78. – reference: Lerner, M.J. (1980). The belief in a just world. In The Belief in a just World (pp.9-30). Springer, Boston, MA. – reference: McNamara, R.A., Norenzayan, A., & Henrich, J. (2016). Supernatural punishment, in-group biases, and material insecurity: experiments and ethnography from Yasawa, Fiji. Religion, Brain & Behavior, 6 (1), 34-55. – reference: Ball, K. (2010). Workplace surveillance: An overview. Labor History, 51 (1), 87-106. – reference: 梅谷凌平, 後藤晶, 岡田勇, & 山本仁志. (2020). 公正世界信念がアップストリーム互恵的協力に与える影響の検討. 社会心理学研究, 36 (2), 31-38. – reference: Chen, D.L., Schonger, M., & Wickens, C. (2016). oTree—An open-source platform for laboratory, online, and field experiments. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance, 9, 88-97. – reference: Haley, K.J., & Fessler, D. (2005). Nobody's watching? Subtle cues affect generosity in an anonymous dictator game. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26, 245-256. – reference: Piazza, J., Bering, J.M., & Ingram, G. (2011). “Princess Alice is watching you”: Children's belief in an invisible person inhibits cheating. 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| Snippet | In this study, to feel someone is watching me is defined as the “feeling of being watched.” Using crowdsourcing, we investigated the effects of feelings of... |
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| SubjectTerms | Crowdsourcing Feeling of being watched Social preference Subjective happiness Supernatural beings クラウドソーシング 主観的幸福度 社会的選好 被監視感 超自然的存在 |
| Title | The Effect of Feelings of Being Watched on Subjective Happiness and Social Preferences: From a Survey Experiment Using Crowdsourcing |
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