Cost-analysis of COVID-19 sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing in low resource setting: The case of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Ethiopia has been responding to the COVID-19 pandemic through a combination of interventions, including non-pharmaceutical interventions, quarantine, testing, isolation, contact tracing, and clinical management. Estimating the resources consumed for COVID-19 prevention and control could inform effic...
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| Published in | PloS one Vol. 17; no. 6; p. e0269458 |
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| Main Authors | , , , , , , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
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United States
Public Library of Science
09.06.2022
Public Library of Science (PLoS) |
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| Abstract | Ethiopia has been responding to the COVID-19 pandemic through a combination of interventions, including non-pharmaceutical interventions, quarantine, testing, isolation, contact tracing, and clinical management. Estimating the resources consumed for COVID-19 prevention and control could inform efficient decision-making for epidemic/pandemic-prone diseases in the future. This study aims to estimate the unit cost of COVID-19 sample collection, laboratory diagnosis, and contact tracing in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Primary and secondary data were collected to estimate the costs of COVID-19 sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing. A healthcare system perspective was used. We used a combination of micro-costing (bottom-up) and top-down approaches to estimate resources consumed and the unit costs of the interventions. We used available cost and outcome data between May and December 2020. The costs were classified into capital and recurrent inputs to estimate unit and total costs. We identified the cost drivers of the interventions. We reported the cost for the following outcome measures: (1) cost per sample collected, (2) cost per laboratory diagnosis, (3) cost per sample collected and laboratory diagnosis, (4) cost per contact traced, and (5) cost per COVID-19 positive test identified. We conducted one-way sensitivity analysis by varying the input parameters. All costs were reported in US dollars (USD).
The unit cost per sample collected was USD 1.33. The unit cost of tracing a contact of an index case was USD 0.66. The unit cost of COVID-19 diagnosis, excluding the cost for sample collection was USD 3.91. The unit cost of sample collection per COVID-19 positive individual was USD 11.63. The unit cost for COVID-19 positive test through contact tracing was USD 54.00. The unit cost COVID-19 DNA PCR diagnosis for identifying COVID-19 positive individuals, excluding the sample collection and transport cost, was USD 37.70. The cost per COVID-19 positive case identified was USD 49.33 including both sample collection and laboratory diagnosis costs. Among the cost drivers, personnel cost (salary and food cost) takes the highest share for all interventions, ranging from 51-76% of the total cost.
The costs of sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing for COVID-19 were high given the low per capita health expenditure in Ethiopia and other low-income settings. Since the personnel cost accounts for the highest cost, decision-makers should focus on minimizing this cost when faced with pandemic-prone diseases by strengthening the health system and using digital platforms. The findings of this study can help decision-makers prioritize and allocate resources for effective public health emergency response. |
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| AbstractList | Ethiopia has been responding to the COVID-19 pandemic through a combination of interventions, including non-pharmaceutical interventions, quarantine, testing, isolation, contact tracing, and clinical management. Estimating the resources consumed for COVID-19 prevention and control could inform efficient decision-making for epidemic/pandemic-prone diseases in the future. This study aims to estimate the unit cost of COVID-19 sample collection, laboratory diagnosis, and contact tracing in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Primary and secondary data were collected to estimate the costs of COVID-19 sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing. A healthcare system perspective was used. We used a combination of micro-costing (bottom-up) and top-down approaches to estimate resources consumed and the unit costs of the interventions. We used available cost and outcome data between May and December 2020. The costs were classified into capital and recurrent inputs to estimate unit and total costs. We identified the cost drivers of the interventions. We reported the cost for the following outcome measures: (1) cost per sample collected, (2) cost per laboratory diagnosis, (3) cost per sample collected and laboratory diagnosis, (4) cost per contact traced, and (5) cost per COVID-19 positive test identified. We conducted one-way sensitivity analysis by varying the input parameters. All costs were reported in US dollars (USD). The unit cost per sample collected was USD 1.33. The unit cost of tracing a contact of an index case was USD 0.66. The unit cost of COVID-19 diagnosis, excluding the cost for sample collection was USD 3.91. The unit cost of sample collection per COVID-19 positive individual was USD 11.63. The unit cost for COVID-19 positive test through contact tracing was USD 54.00. The unit cost COVID-19 DNA PCR diagnosis for identifying COVID-19 positive individuals, excluding the sample collection and transport cost, was USD 37.70. The cost per COVID-19 positive case identified was USD 49.33 including both sample collection and laboratory diagnosis costs. Among the cost drivers, personnel cost (salary and food cost) takes the highest share for all interventions, ranging from 51-76% of the total cost. The costs of sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing for COVID-19 were high given the low per capita health expenditure in Ethiopia and other low-income settings. Since the personnel cost accounts for the highest cost, decision-makers should focus on minimizing this cost when faced with pandemic-prone diseases by strengthening the health system and using digital platforms. The findings of this study can help decision-makers prioritize and allocate resources for effective public health emergency response. BackgroundEthiopia has been responding to the COVID-19 pandemic through a combination of interventions, including non-pharmaceutical interventions, quarantine, testing, isolation, contact tracing, and clinical management. Estimating the resources consumed for COVID-19 prevention and control could inform efficient decision-making for epidemic/pandemic-prone diseases in the future. This study aims to estimate the unit cost of COVID-19 sample collection, laboratory diagnosis, and contact tracing in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.MethodsPrimary and secondary data were collected to estimate the costs of COVID-19 sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing. A healthcare system perspective was used. We used a combination of micro-costing (bottom-up) and top-down approaches to estimate resources consumed and the unit costs of the interventions. We used available cost and outcome data between May and December 2020. The costs were classified into capital and recurrent inputs to estimate unit and total costs. We identified the cost drivers of the interventions. We reported the cost for the following outcome measures: (1) cost per sample collected, (2) cost per laboratory diagnosis, (3) cost per sample collected and laboratory diagnosis, (4) cost per contact traced, and (5) cost per COVID-19 positive test identified. We conducted one-way sensitivity analysis by varying the input parameters. All costs were reported in US dollars (USD).ResultsThe unit cost per sample collected was USD 1.33. The unit cost of tracing a contact of an index case was USD 0.66. The unit cost of COVID-19 diagnosis, excluding the cost for sample collection was USD 3.91. The unit cost of sample collection per COVID-19 positive individual was USD 11.63. The unit cost for COVID-19 positive test through contact tracing was USD 54.00. The unit cost COVID-19 DNA PCR diagnosis for identifying COVID-19 positive individuals, excluding the sample collection and transport cost, was USD 37.70. The cost per COVID-19 positive case identified was USD 49.33 including both sample collection and laboratory diagnosis costs. Among the cost drivers, personnel cost (salary and food cost) takes the highest share for all interventions, ranging from 51-76% of the total cost.ConclusionThe costs of sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing for COVID-19 were high given the low per capita health expenditure in Ethiopia and other low-income settings. Since the personnel cost accounts for the highest cost, decision-makers should focus on minimizing this cost when faced with pandemic-prone diseases by strengthening the health system and using digital platforms. The findings of this study can help decision-makers prioritize and allocate resources for effective public health emergency response. Background Ethiopia has been responding to the COVID-19 pandemic through a combination of interventions, including non-pharmaceutical interventions, quarantine, testing, isolation, contact tracing, and clinical management. Estimating the resources consumed for COVID-19 prevention and control could inform efficient decision-making for epidemic/pandemic-prone diseases in the future. This study aims to estimate the unit cost of COVID-19 sample collection, laboratory diagnosis, and contact tracing in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Methods Primary and secondary data were collected to estimate the costs of COVID-19 sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing. A healthcare system perspective was used. We used a combination of micro-costing (bottom-up) and top-down approaches to estimate resources consumed and the unit costs of the interventions. We used available cost and outcome data between May and December 2020. The costs were classified into capital and recurrent inputs to estimate unit and total costs. We identified the cost drivers of the interventions. We reported the cost for the following outcome measures: (1) cost per sample collected, (2) cost per laboratory diagnosis, (3) cost per sample collected and laboratory diagnosis, (4) cost per contact traced, and (5) cost per COVID-19 positive test identified. We conducted one-way sensitivity analysis by varying the input parameters. All costs were reported in US dollars (USD). Results The unit cost per sample collected was USD 1.33. The unit cost of tracing a contact of an index case was USD 0.66. The unit cost of COVID-19 diagnosis, excluding the cost for sample collection was USD 3.91. The unit cost of sample collection per COVID-19 positive individual was USD 11.63. The unit cost for COVID-19 positive test through contact tracing was USD 54.00. The unit cost COVID-19 DNA PCR diagnosis for identifying COVID-19 positive individuals, excluding the sample collection and transport cost, was USD 37.70. The cost per COVID-19 positive case identified was USD 49.33 including both sample collection and laboratory diagnosis costs. Among the cost drivers, personnel cost (salary and food cost) takes the highest share for all interventions, ranging from 51-76% of the total cost. Conclusion The costs of sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing for COVID-19 were high given the low per capita health expenditure in Ethiopia and other low-income settings. Since the personnel cost accounts for the highest cost, decision-makers should focus on minimizing this cost when faced with pandemic-prone diseases by strengthening the health system and using digital platforms. The findings of this study can help decision-makers prioritize and allocate resources for effective public health emergency response. Background Ethiopia has been responding to the COVID-19 pandemic through a combination of interventions, including non-pharmaceutical interventions, quarantine, testing, isolation, contact tracing, and clinical management. Estimating the resources consumed for COVID-19 prevention and control could inform efficient decision-making for epidemic/pandemic-prone diseases in the future. This study aims to estimate the unit cost of COVID-19 sample collection, laboratory diagnosis, and contact tracing in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Methods Primary and secondary data were collected to estimate the costs of COVID-19 sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing. A healthcare system perspective was used. We used a combination of micro-costing (bottom-up) and top-down approaches to estimate resources consumed and the unit costs of the interventions. We used available cost and outcome data between May and December 2020. The costs were classified into capital and recurrent inputs to estimate unit and total costs. We identified the cost drivers of the interventions. We reported the cost for the following outcome measures: (1) cost per sample collected, (2) cost per laboratory diagnosis, (3) cost per sample collected and laboratory diagnosis, (4) cost per contact traced, and (5) cost per COVID-19 positive test identified. We conducted one-way sensitivity analysis by varying the input parameters. All costs were reported in US dollars (USD). Results The unit cost per sample collected was USD 1.33. The unit cost of tracing a contact of an index case was USD 0.66. The unit cost of COVID-19 diagnosis, excluding the cost for sample collection was USD 3.91. The unit cost of sample collection per COVID-19 positive individual was USD 11.63. The unit cost for COVID-19 positive test through contact tracing was USD 54.00. The unit cost COVID-19 DNA PCR diagnosis for identifying COVID-19 positive individuals, excluding the sample collection and transport cost, was USD 37.70. The cost per COVID-19 positive case identified was USD 49.33 including both sample collection and laboratory diagnosis costs. Among the cost drivers, personnel cost (salary and food cost) takes the highest share for all interventions, ranging from 51–76% of the total cost. Conclusion The costs of sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing for COVID-19 were high given the low per capita health expenditure in Ethiopia and other low-income settings. Since the personnel cost accounts for the highest cost, decision-makers should focus on minimizing this cost when faced with pandemic-prone diseases by strengthening the health system and using digital platforms. The findings of this study can help decision-makers prioritize and allocate resources for effective public health emergency response. Ethiopia has been responding to the COVID-19 pandemic through a combination of interventions, including non-pharmaceutical interventions, quarantine, testing, isolation, contact tracing, and clinical management. Estimating the resources consumed for COVID-19 prevention and control could inform efficient decision-making for epidemic/pandemic-prone diseases in the future. This study aims to estimate the unit cost of COVID-19 sample collection, laboratory diagnosis, and contact tracing in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Primary and secondary data were collected to estimate the costs of COVID-19 sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing. A healthcare system perspective was used. We used a combination of micro-costing (bottom-up) and top-down approaches to estimate resources consumed and the unit costs of the interventions. We used available cost and outcome data between May and December 2020. The costs were classified into capital and recurrent inputs to estimate unit and total costs. We identified the cost drivers of the interventions. We reported the cost for the following outcome measures: (1) cost per sample collected, (2) cost per laboratory diagnosis, (3) cost per sample collected and laboratory diagnosis, (4) cost per contact traced, and (5) cost per COVID-19 positive test identified. We conducted one-way sensitivity analysis by varying the input parameters. All costs were reported in US dollars (USD). The unit cost per sample collected was USD 1.33. The unit cost of tracing a contact of an index case was USD 0.66. The unit cost of COVID-19 diagnosis, excluding the cost for sample collection was USD 3.91. The unit cost of sample collection per COVID-19 positive individual was USD 11.63. The unit cost for COVID-19 positive test through contact tracing was USD 54.00. The unit cost COVID-19 DNA PCR diagnosis for identifying COVID-19 positive individuals, excluding the sample collection and transport cost, was USD 37.70. The cost per COVID-19 positive case identified was USD 49.33 including both sample collection and laboratory diagnosis costs. Among the cost drivers, personnel cost (salary and food cost) takes the highest share for all interventions, ranging from 51-76% of the total cost. The costs of sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing for COVID-19 were high given the low per capita health expenditure in Ethiopia and other low-income settings. Since the personnel cost accounts for the highest cost, decision-makers should focus on minimizing this cost when faced with pandemic-prone diseases by strengthening the health system and using digital platforms. The findings of this study can help decision-makers prioritize and allocate resources for effective public health emergency response. |
| Audience | Academic |
| Author | Memirie, Solomon Tessema Yigezu, Amanuel Hailu, Alemayehu Mirkuzie, Alemnesh H Zewdie, Samuel Abera Agachew, Mesfin Abera, Adugna |
| AuthorAffiliation | 5 Addis Center for Ethics and Priority Setting, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 3 Parasitology Department, Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua Leon, NICARAGUA 2 Partnership and Cooperation Directorate, Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 4 Bergen Centre for Ethics and Priority Setting, Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway 1 National Data Management Center for Health, Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia |
| AuthorAffiliation_xml | – name: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua Leon, NICARAGUA – name: 3 Parasitology Department, Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – name: 2 Partnership and Cooperation Directorate, Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – name: 1 National Data Management Center for Health, Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – name: 4 Bergen Centre for Ethics and Priority Setting, Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway – name: 5 Addis Center for Ethics and Priority Setting, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: Amanuel orcidid: 0000-0003-2792-2163 surname: Yigezu fullname: Yigezu, Amanuel organization: National Data Management Center for Health, Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – sequence: 2 givenname: Samuel Abera surname: Zewdie fullname: Zewdie, Samuel Abera organization: Partnership and Cooperation Directorate, Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – sequence: 3 givenname: Alemnesh H surname: Mirkuzie fullname: Mirkuzie, Alemnesh H organization: National Data Management Center for Health, Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – sequence: 4 givenname: Adugna surname: Abera fullname: Abera, Adugna organization: Parasitology Department, Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – sequence: 5 givenname: Alemayehu orcidid: 0000-0003-4872-8036 surname: Hailu fullname: Hailu, Alemayehu organization: Bergen Centre for Ethics and Priority Setting, Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway – sequence: 6 givenname: Mesfin orcidid: 0000-0002-9222-2430 surname: Agachew fullname: Agachew, Mesfin organization: National Data Management Center for Health, Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – sequence: 7 givenname: Solomon Tessema surname: Memirie fullname: Memirie, Solomon Tessema organization: Addis Center for Ethics and Priority Setting, College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia |
| BackLink | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35679290$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed |
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| CitedBy_id | crossref_primary_10_2174_0118749445260995230925103838 crossref_primary_10_1017_dmp_2023_205 crossref_primary_10_3390_ijerph19148515 crossref_primary_10_7759_cureus_48046 |
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| Copyright | COPYRIGHT 2022 Public Library of Science 2022 Yigezu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (the “License”), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License. 2022 Yigezu et al 2022 Yigezu et al |
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| References_xml | – year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref006 publication-title: Interim National Strategy and Guidance for the Laboratory Diagnosis of COVID-19 in Ethiopia contributor: fullname: EPH Institute – ident: pone.0269458.ref019 – ident: pone.0269458.ref017 – volume: 16 start-page: e0248783 issue: 3 year: 2021 ident: pone.0269458.ref008 article-title: Identifying optimal COVID-19 testing strategies for schools and businesses: Balancing testing frequency, individual test technology, and cost. publication-title: PLOS ONE doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248783 contributor: fullname: GD Lyng – ident: pone.0269458.ref009 – volume: 68 start-page: 703 issue: 5 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref011 article-title: COVID-19 pandemic: Lessons learned and future directions publication-title: Indian journal of ophthalmology doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_843_20 contributor: fullname: RC Khanna – ident: pone.0269458.ref002 – volume: 12 start-page: e1001804 issue: 3 year: 2015 ident: pone.0269458.ref005 article-title: Strengthening the Detection of and Early Response to Public Health Emergencies: Lessons from the West African Ebola Epidemic. publication-title: PLOS Medicine. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001804 contributor: fullname: MJ Siedner – volume: 8 start-page: e901 issue: 7 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref032 article-title: Early estimates of the indirect effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on maternal and child mortality in low-income and middle-income countries: a modelling study publication-title: The Lancet Global health doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30229-1 contributor: fullname: T Roberton – year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref029 article-title: New COVID-19 Vaccines, Its Cost and Shelf Life: A Cost Effectiveness Analysis publication-title: Archives of medical research contributor: fullname: P Sookaromdee – volume: 36 start-page: S38 issue: Supplement_1 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref007 article-title: A cost–benefit analysis of the COVID-19 disease. publication-title: Oxford Review of Economic Policy. doi: 10.1093/oxrep/graa030 contributor: fullname: R Rowthorn – year: 2017 ident: pone.0269458.ref023 publication-title: Methods for the economic evaluation of health care programmes contributor: fullname: M. Drummond – year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref025 article-title: Clinical Impact, Costs, and Cost-Effectiveness of Expanded SARS-CoV-2 Testing in Massachusetts publication-title: Clinical Infectious Diseases contributor: fullname: AM Neilan – volume-title: Making choices in health: WHO guide to cost-effectiveness analysis year: 2003 ident: pone.0269458.ref022 contributor: fullname: World Health O – start-page: 2001718 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref031 article-title: The potential impact of COVID-19-related disruption on tuberculosis burden publication-title: European Respiratory Journal doi: 10.1183/13993003.01718-2020 contributor: fullname: CF McQuaid – volume: 27 start-page: 380 issue: 3 year: 2021 ident: pone.0269458.ref033 article-title: Toward universal health coverage in the post-COVID-19 era publication-title: Nature Medicine doi: 10.1038/s41591-021-01268-y contributor: fullname: S Verguet – volume: 5 start-page: e003675 issue: 10 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref035 article-title: Protecting essential health services in low-income and middle-income countries and humanitarian settings while responding to the COVID-19 pandemic publication-title: BMJ Global Health doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003675 contributor: fullname: K Blanchet – year: 2021 ident: pone.0269458.ref016 publication-title: COVID-19 Essential Supplies Forecasting Tool contributor: fullname: World Health Organization – volume: 192 start-page: E653 issue: 24 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref013 article-title: Digital contact tracing for COVID-19. publication-title: CMAJ. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.200922 contributor: fullname: RA Kleinman – volume: 8 start-page: e488 issue: 4 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref010 article-title: Feasibility of controlling COVID-19 outbreaks by isolation of cases and contacts publication-title: The Lancet Global health doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30074-7 contributor: fullname: J Hellewell – ident: pone.0269458.ref024 – volume: 14 start-page: 80 year: 2015 ident: pone.0269458.ref034 article-title: Health care financing and the sustainability of health systems. publication-title: Int J Equity Health. doi: 10.1186/s12939-015-0208-5 contributor: fullname: L Liaropoulos – volume: 16 start-page: 33 issue: 1 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref004 article-title: Contact tracing in the context of COVID-19. Interim guidance. publication-title: Pediatr i Med Rodz doi: 10.15557/PiMR.2020.0005 contributor: fullname: World Health Organization – ident: pone.0269458.ref001 – ident: pone.0269458.ref020 – volume: 37 start-page: 8 issue: Suppl 1 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref012 article-title: Cochrane corner: digital contact tracing technologies in epidemics. publication-title: The Pan African medical journal contributor: fullname: A Jaca – year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref026 article-title: Is scaling-up COVID-19 testing cost-saving? publication-title: medRxiv contributor: fullname: B Sousa-Pinto – year: 2021 ident: pone.0269458.ref028 article-title: A Cost-Effectiveness Evaluation of Hospitalizations, Fatalities, and Economic Outcomes Associated with Universal Versus Anaphylaxis Risk-Stratified COVID-19 Vaccination Strategies publication-title: The journal of allergy and clinical immunology In practice contributor: fullname: M Shaker – year: 2021 ident: pone.0269458.ref030 publication-title: Ethiopia National Deployment and Vaccination Plan for COVID-19 Vaccines contributor: fullname: E. Ministry of Health – volume: 13 start-page: 1841963 issue: 1 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref021 article-title: Establishment of COVID-19 testing laboratory in resource-limited settings: challenges and prospects reported from Ethiopia. publication-title: Glob Health Action. doi: 10.1080/16549716.2020.1841963 contributor: fullname: A Abera – ident: pone.0269458.ref036 – volume: 9 start-page: e120 issue: 2 year: 2021 ident: pone.0269458.ref027 article-title: Cost-effectiveness of public health strategies for COVID-19 epidemic control in South Africa: a microsimulation modelling study publication-title: The Lancet Global Health doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30452-6 contributor: fullname: KP Reddy – volume: 14 start-page: 1631 issue: 6 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref014 article-title: Integrating emerging technologies into COVID-19 contact tracing: Opportunities, challenges and pitfalls publication-title: Diabetes & metabolic syndrome doi: 10.1016/j.dsx.2020.08.029 contributor: fullname: E. Mbunge – year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref015 article-title: The health sector cost of different policy responses to COVID-19 in low- and middle-income countries. publication-title: medRxiv contributor: fullname: S Torres-Rueda – start-page: 1 year: 2020 ident: pone.0269458.ref003 article-title: Overview of public health and social measures in the context of COVID-19. publication-title: World Heal Organ 2020. – year: 2021 ident: pone.0269458.ref018 publication-title: Emergency Global Supply Chain System (COVID-19) catalogue. contributor: fullname: World Health Organization |
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| Title | Cost-analysis of COVID-19 sample collection, diagnosis, and contact tracing in low resource setting: The case of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia |
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