Opening Strategy: Evolution of a Precarious Profession

This paper takes the long view on the development of strategy as a profession, from the 1950s to today. We identify strategy as a structurally precarious profession, subject to cyclical demand and shifts in organizational power. This precariousness has increased with the secular shift towards more o...

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Published in	British journal of management Vol. 22; no. 3; pp. 531 - 544
Main Authors	Whittington, Richard, Cailluet, Ludovic, Yakis-Douglas, Basak
Format	Journal Article
Language	English
Published	Oxford, UK Blackwell Publishing Ltd 01.09.2011 Blackwell Publ Wiley
Subjects	Beruf Business administration Humanities and Social Sciences Management research Management theory Organization development Organizational behaviour Strategic behaviour Strategic management Strategic studies Strategisches Management Studies Transparency Uncertainty STRATEGIC planning PROFESSIONAL practice STRATEGIC planning consultants "STRATEGIC planning" MANAGEMENT science "PROFESSIONAL practice" "STRATEGIC planning consultants" "MANAGEMENT science"
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Abstract	This paper takes the long view on the development of strategy as a profession, from the 1950s to today. We identify strategy as a structurally precarious profession, subject to cyclical demand and shifts in organizational power. This precariousness has increased with the secular shift towards more open forms of strategy‐making, with more transparency inside and outside organizations and more inclusion of different actors internally and externally. We analyse four forces – organizational, societal, cultural and technological – driving the evolution of strategy as a profession and discuss implications for the future of strategy work, for effective strategies, for strategy's professional bodies and for strategy research.
AbstractList	This paper takes the long view on the development of strategy as a profession, from the 1950s to today. We identify strategy as a structurally precarious profession, subject to cyclical demand and shifts in organizational power. This precariousness has increased with the secular shift towards more open forms of strategy‐making, with more transparency inside and outside organizations and more inclusion of different actors internally and externally. We analyse four forces – organizational, societal, cultural and technological – driving the evolution of strategy as a profession and discuss implications for the future of strategy work, for effective strategies, for strategy's professional bodies and for strategy research. This paper takes the long view on the development of strategy as a profession, from the 1950s to today. We identify strategy as a structurally precarious profession, subject to cyclical demand and shifts in organizational power. This precariousness has increased with the secular shift towards more open forms of strategy-making, with more transparency inside and outside organizations and more inclusion of different actors internally and externally. We analyse four forces -- organizational, societal, cultural and technological -- driving the evolution of strategy as a profession and discuss implications for the future of strategy work, for effective strategies, for strategy's professional bodies and for strategy research. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT] This paper takes the long view on the development of strategy as a profession, from the 1950s to today. We identify strategy as a structurally precarious profession, subject to cyclical demand and shifts in organizational power. This precariousness has increased with the secular shift towards more open forms of strategy-making, with more transparency inside and outside organizations and more inclusion of different actors internally and externally. We analyse four forces - organizational, societal, cultural and technological - driving the evolution of strategy as a profession and discuss implications for the future of strategy work, for effective strategies, for strategy's professional bodies and for strategy research. Reprinted by permission of Blackwell Publishers This paper takes the long view on the development of strategy as a profession, from the 1950s to today. We identify strategy as a structurally precarious profession, subject to cyclical demand and shifts in organizational power. This precariousness has increased with the secular shift towards more open forms of strategy-making, with more transparency inside and outside organizations and more inclusion of different actors internally and externally. We analyse four forces - organizational, societal, cultural and technological - driving the evolution of strategy as a profession and discuss implications for the future of strategy work, for effective strategies, for strategy's professional bodies and for strategy research
Author	Yakis-Douglas, Basak Whittington, Richard Cailluet, Ludovic
Author_xml	– sequence: 1 givenname: Richard surname: Whittington fullname: Whittington, Richard organization: Saïd Business School, University of Oxford, Park End Street, Oxford OX1 1HP, UK – sequence: 2 givenname: Ludovic surname: Cailluet fullname: Cailluet, Ludovic organization: University of Toulouse 1, Rue du Doyen Gabriel Marty, 31000 Toulouse, France – sequence: 3 givenname: Basak surname: Yakis-Douglas fullname: Yakis-Douglas, Basak organization: Saïd Business School, University of Oxford, Park End Street, Oxford OX1 1HP, UK
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References	Collins, R. (1978). 'Positive business responses to the new deal: the roots of the committee for economic development, 1933-1942', Business History Review, 52, pp. 369-391. Kiechel, W. (1982). 'Corporate strategists under fire', Fortune, 27, pp. 38-44. Jarzabkowski, P. and J. Balogun (2009). 'The practice and process of delivering integration through strategic planning', Journal of Management Studies, 46, pp. 1255-1288. Kiechel, W. (2010). Lords of Strategy: The Secret Intellectual History of the New Corporate World. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Regnér, P. (2003). 'Strategy creation in the periphery: inductive versus deductive strategy making', Journal of Management Studies, 40, pp. 57-70. Wilson, I. (1994). 'Strategic planning isn't dead - it changed', Long Range Planning, 27, pp. 12-24. Ansoff, H. I. (1965). Corporate Strategy. London: Penguin. Rigby, D. and B. Bilodeau (2009). Management Tools and Trends 2009. Boston, MA: Bain & Co. Barley, S. R. and G. Kunda (2004). Gurus, Hired Guns and Warm Bodies: Itinerant Experts in a Knowledge Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Hamel, G. and P. Skarzynski (1999). 'New wealth', Executive Excellence, 16, pp. 3-9. Floyd, S. and B. Wooldridge (1996). The Strategic Middle Manager: How to Create and Sustain Competitive Advantage. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Williamson, O. E. (1970). Corporate Control and Business Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Angwin, D., S. Paroutis and S. Mitson (2009). 'Connecting up strategy: are senior strategy directors a missing link?', California Management Review, 51, pp. 74-84. Golsorkhi, D., L. Rouleau, D. Seidl and E. Vaara (2010). Cambridge Handbook of Strategy as Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Montgomery, C. (2008). 'Putting leadership back into strategy', Harvard Business Review, 86, pp. 54-60. Breene, R., P. Nunes and W. Shill (2007). 'The chief strategy officer', Harvard Business Review, 85, pp. 84-93. Mehran, H. and S. Peristiani (2010). 'Financial visibility and the decision to go private', Review of Financial Studies, 23, pp. 519-547. Byrne, J. (1993). The Whiz Kids: the Founding Fathers of American Business, and the Legacy They Left Us. New York: Doubleday. MacDonald, K. M. (1984). 'Professional formation: the case of Scottish accountants', British Journal of Sociology, 35, pp. 174-189. Knights, D. and G. Morgan (1991). 'Corporate strategy, organizations, and subjectivity: a crtique', Organization Studies, 12, pp. 251-273. Ernst & Young (2010). Global IPO Trends 2010. London: Ernst & Young. Bartlett, C. and S. Ghoshal (1989). Managing Across Borders: the Transnational Solution. Boston, MA: Harvard Bussiness School Press. Roney, C. W. (2005). Strategic Management Methodology: Generally Accepted Principles for Practitioners. Westport, CT: Praeger. Hamel, G. and C. K. Prahalad (1994). Competing for the Future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Heracleous, L. and C. Jacobs (2011). Crafting Strategies: Embodied Metaphors in Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Johnson, G., S. Prashantham, S. Floyd and N. Bourque (2010). 'The ritualization of strategy workshops', Organization Studies, 31, pp. 1589-1618. Giraudeau, M. (2008). 'The drafts of strategy: opening up plans and their uses', Long Range Planning, 41, pp. 291-308. Porter, M. E. (2005). 'The CEO as strategist', Leadership Excellence, 22, p. 11. Mantere, S. and E. Vaara (2008). 'On the problem of participation in strategy: a critical discursive perspective', Organization Science, 19, pp. 341-358. Toulmin, S. (2003). Return to Reason. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press. Chesbrough, H. W. and M. Appleyard (2007). 'Open innovation and strategy', California Management Review, 50, pp. 57-65. Tett, G. (2009). Fool's Gold: How the Bold Dream of a Small Tribe at J.P. Morgan was Corrupted by Wall Street Greed and Unleashed a Catastrophe. New York: Free Press. Whittington, R. (2004). 'Strategy after modernism: recovering practice', European Management Review, 1, pp. 62-68. Dahlander, L. and M. Gann (2010). 'How open is innovation?', Research Policy, 39, pp. 699-709. Vaara, E., V. Sorsa and P. Palli (2010). 'On the force potential of strategy texts: a critical discourse analysis of a strategic plan and its power effects in a city organization', Organization, 17, pp. 685-702. Grant, R. (2003). 'Strategic planning in a turbulent environment: evidence from the oil majors', Strategic Management Journal, 24, pp. 491-505. Cailluet, L. (2008). 'La fabrique de la stratégie: regards croisés sur la France et les Etats-Unis', Revue Française de Gestion, 188-189, pp. 143-159. Clarke, C. J. (1997). 'The strategic planning society - the first 30 years', Long Range Planning, 30, pp. 327-333. Hambrick, D. C. and M.-J. Chen (2008). 'Strategy as an admittance-seeking social movement', Academy of Management Review, 33, pp. 32-54. Chesbrough, H. W. (2003). Open Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting from Technology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Ocasio, W. and J. Joseph (2008). 'Rise and fall - or transformation: the evolution of strategic planning at the General Electric Company, 1940-2006', Long Range Planning, 41, pp. 248-272. Foss, N. (2011). 'Why micro-foundations for resource-based theory are needed and what they might look like', Journal of Management, forthcoming. Palmisano, S. (2004). 'Leading change when business is good. Interview by Paul Hemp and Thomas A. Stewart', Harvard Business Review, 82, pp. 60-70. Whittington, R. and L. Cailluet (2008). 'Special Issue Introduction: The crafts of strategy', Long Range Planning, 41, pp. 241-247. FEACO (2009). Survey of the European Management Consultancy Market, 2007/2008. Brussels: FEACO. Wilkinson, A. (2003). 'Riskworld scenarios', Journal of Risk Research, 6, pp. 297-305. Evetts, J. (2003). 'The sociological analysis of professionalism: occupational change in the modern world', International Sociology, 18, pp. 395-415. Almirall, E. and R. Casadesus-Masanell (2010). 'Open versus closed innovation: a model of discovery and divergence', Academy of Management Review, 35, pp. 27-47. Whittington, R. (2006). 'Completing the practice turn in strategy research', Organization Studies, 27, pp. 613-634. Ghemawat, P. (2002). 'Competition and business strategy in historical perspective', Business History Review, 76, pp. 37-74. Thornton, P. (2007). Inside the Dark Box: Shedding Light on Private Equity. London: The Work Foundation. Makadok, R. and J. B. Barney (2001). 'Strategic factor market intelligence: an application of information economics to strategy formulation and competitor intelligence', Management Science., 47, pp. 1621-1638. Hodgson, D. (2002). 'Disciplining the professional: the case of project management', Journal of Management Studies, 39, pp. 803-821. Abbott, A. (1988). The System of Professions: an Essay on the Expert Division of Labour. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Lorente-Vicente, R. (2001). 'Specificity and opacity as resource-based determinants of capital structure: evidence for Spanish manufacturing firms', Strategic Management Journal, 22, pp. 157-170. Marris, R. (1964). The Economic Theory of Managerial Capitalism. New York: Free Press. McKenna, C. D. (2006). The World's Newest Profession: Management Consulting in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cox, J. L., E. Martinez and K. Quinlan (2008). 'Blogs and the corporation: managing the risk, reaping the benefits', Journal of Business Strategy, 29, pp. 4-16. Mulgan, G. (2009). The Art of Public Strategy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rivkin, J. (2000). 'Imitation of complex strategies', Management Science, 46, pp. 824-44. Jelinek, M. (1979). Institutionalizing Innovation: a Study of Organizational Learning Systems. New York: Praeger. Howarth, S. and J. Jonket (2007). Powering the Hydrocarbon Revolution, 1939-1973: a History of Royal Dutch Shell, Vol. 2, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mintzberg, H. (1994). The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning. London: Prentice Hall. Chandler, A. D. (1962). Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Cordiner, R. (1956). New Frontiers for Professional Managers. New York: McGraw-Hill. Oldfield, H. R. (1995). 'General Electric enters the computer business - revisited', IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 17, pp. 46-55. Cusumano, M. and A. Gawer (2002). Platform Leadership: How Intel, Microsoft and Cisco Drive Industry Innovation. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Galbraith, J. K. (1967). The New Industrial State. London: Hamish Hamilton. Olgiati, V. (2010). 'The concept of profession today: a disquieting misnomer', Contemporary Sociology, 9, pp. 804-842. Pascale, R. T. (1991). Managing on the Edge. New York: Simon and Schuster. Pink, D. H. (2001). Free Agent Nation: How America's Independent Workers are Transforming the Way We Live. New York: Warner Books. Rollinson, R. (2011). 'Should strategy professionals be certified?', Strategy and Leadership, 39, pp. 39-43. Hutton, A. (2004). 'Beyond financial reporting: an integrated approach to disclosure', Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, 16, pp. 8-16. Powley, E. H., R. E. Fry, F. J Barrett and D. S. Bright (2005). 'Dialogic democracy meets command and control: transformation through the appreciative inquiry summit', Academy of Management Executive, 18, pp. 67-80. Grinyer, P. H. and J. Wooler (1975). 'Computer models for corporate planning', Long Range Planning, 8, pp. 14-25. Davis, G. F. (2009). Managed by the Markets: How Finance Reshaped America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jarzabkowski, P., J. Balogun and D. Seidl (2007). 'Strategizing: the challenges of a practice perspective', Human Relations, 60, pp. 5-27. Budd, A. (1978). The Politics of Economic Planning. London: Fontana. Kaplan, S. (2011). 'Strategy and Powerpoint: the epistemic culture and machinery of strategy making', Organization Science, 22, pp. 320-346. Westley, F. (1990). 'Middle ma 2009; 46 1990; 11 1991; 12 2008; 188–189 2000; 46 2010; 17 1994; 27 1971 2003; 18 2008; 33 1970 2004; 1 2001; 47 2005; 22 1979 1978 2010; 23 1982; 27 2009; 51 2001 2008; 29 2006; 27 2003; 6 1999; 16 2011; 22 2007; 60 2007; 2 1975; 8 2003; 40 1989 2010; 9 1988 2002; 39 2010; 31 2010; 35 2004; 82 1995; 17 2011 2010 2010; 39 1978; 52 2008; 19 2002; 76 2009 1996 2007 2006 1994 2005 2004 1993 2007; 50 2003 2002 1991 2001; 22 2011; 39 1956 2004; 16 1997; 30 1984; 35 1965 2003; 24 1964 1962 2008; 41 2007; 85 2008; 86 2005; 18 1967 e_1_2_6_51_1 e_1_2_6_76_1 e_1_2_6_95_1 e_1_2_6_70_1 e_1_2_6_93_1 e_1_2_6_30_1 Mintzberg H. (e_1_2_6_65_1) 1994 e_1_2_6_91_1 Porter M. E. (e_1_2_6_74_1) 2005; 22 Montgomery C. (e_1_2_6_66_1) 2008; 86 e_1_2_6_19_1 Chesbrough H. W. (e_1_2_6_17_1) 2003 Thornton P. (e_1_2_6_85_1) 2007 e_1_2_6_13_1 e_1_2_6_36_1 e_1_2_6_59_1 Chandler A. D. (e_1_2_6_16_1) 1962 e_1_2_6_55_1 e_1_2_6_78_1 e_1_2_6_15_1 e_1_2_6_38_1 e_1_2_6_57_1 Ernst & Young (e_1_2_6_26_1) 2010 Breene R. (e_1_2_6_11_1) 2007; 85 e_1_2_6_62_1 Bartlett C. (e_1_2_6_9_1) 1989 Galbraith J. K. (e_1_2_6_34_1) 1967 Kiechel W. (e_1_2_6_54_1) 2010 e_1_2_6_64_1 e_1_2_6_87_1 Cordiner R. (e_1_2_6_21_1) 1956 e_1_2_6_43_1 e_1_2_6_81_1 e_1_2_6_20_1 e_1_2_6_60_1 Davis G. F. (e_1_2_6_25_1) 2009 Williamson O. E. (e_1_2_6_94_1) 1970 Floyd S. (e_1_2_6_32_1) 1996 Mulgan G. (e_1_2_6_67_1) 2009 Hamel G. (e_1_2_6_42_1) 1999; 16 Andrews K. R. (e_1_2_6_5_1) 1971 Ansoff H. I. (e_1_2_6_7_1) 1965 Barley S. R. (e_1_2_6_8_1) 2004 e_1_2_6_24_1 e_1_2_6_49_1 e_1_2_6_22_1 e_1_2_6_89_1 Howarth S. (e_1_2_6_45_1) 2007 e_1_2_6_47_1 e_1_2_6_68_1 e_1_2_6_52_1 e_1_2_6_75_1 e_1_2_6_31_1 e_1_2_6_90_1 Rigby D. (e_1_2_6_77_1) 2009 Byrne J. (e_1_2_6_14_1) 1993 Palmisano S. (e_1_2_6_71_1) 2004; 82 Kiechel W. (e_1_2_6_53_1) 1982; 27 Pink D. H. (e_1_2_6_73_1) 2001 Toulmin S. (e_1_2_6_86_1) 2003 Budd A. (e_1_2_6_12_1) 1978 Roney C. W. (e_1_2_6_80_1) 2005 e_1_2_6_35_1 e_1_2_6_33_1 e_1_2_6_18_1 e_1_2_6_39_1 e_1_2_6_56_1 Pascale R. T. (e_1_2_6_72_1) 1991 e_1_2_6_37_1 e_1_2_6_58_1 e_1_2_6_79_1 e_1_2_6_63_1 e_1_2_6_84_1 Whittington R. (e_1_2_6_92_1) 2011 e_1_2_6_40_1 e_1_2_6_61_1 e_1_2_6_82_1 FEACO (e_1_2_6_28_1) 2009 Tett G. (e_1_2_6_83_1) 2009 Abbott A. (e_1_2_6_3_1) 1988 Jelinek M. (e_1_2_6_50_1) 1979 e_1_2_6_4_1 Hamel G. (e_1_2_6_41_1) 1994 e_1_2_6_6_1 e_1_2_6_48_1 e_1_2_6_2_1 Cusumano M. (e_1_2_6_23_1) 2002 e_1_2_6_29_1 e_1_2_6_44_1 Boston Consulting Group (e_1_2_6_10_1) 2006 e_1_2_6_88_1 e_1_2_6_27_1 e_1_2_6_46_1 e_1_2_6_69_1
References_xml	– reference: Cordiner, R. (1956). New Frontiers for Professional Managers. New York: McGraw-Hill. – reference: Boston Consulting Group (2006). BCG History. Boston, MA: Boston Consulting Group. – reference: Palmisano, S. (2004). 'Leading change when business is good. Interview by Paul Hemp and Thomas A. Stewart', Harvard Business Review, 82, pp. 60-70. – reference: Cox, J. L., E. Martinez and K. Quinlan (2008). 'Blogs and the corporation: managing the risk, reaping the benefits', Journal of Business Strategy, 29, pp. 4-16. – reference: Oldfield, H. R. (1995). 'General Electric enters the computer business - revisited', IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 17, pp. 46-55. – reference: Thornton, P. (2007). Inside the Dark Box: Shedding Light on Private Equity. London: The Work Foundation. – reference: Hamel, G. and C. K. Prahalad (1994). Competing for the Future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. – reference: Collins, R. (1978). 'Positive business responses to the new deal: the roots of the committee for economic development, 1933-1942', Business History Review, 52, pp. 369-391. – reference: Ghemawat, P. (2002). 'Competition and business strategy in historical perspective', Business History Review, 76, pp. 37-74. – reference: Floyd, S. and B. Wooldridge (1996). The Strategic Middle Manager: How to Create and Sustain Competitive Advantage. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. – reference: Grant, R. (2003). 'Strategic planning in a turbulent environment: evidence from the oil majors', Strategic Management Journal, 24, pp. 491-505. – reference: Galbraith, J. K. (1967). The New Industrial State. London: Hamish Hamilton. – reference: Pink, D. H. (2001). Free Agent Nation: How America's Independent Workers are Transforming the Way We Live. New York: Warner Books. – reference: Powley, E. H., R. E. Fry, F. J Barrett and D. S. Bright (2005). 'Dialogic democracy meets command and control: transformation through the appreciative inquiry summit', Academy of Management Executive, 18, pp. 67-80. – reference: Golsorkhi, D., L. Rouleau, D. Seidl and E. Vaara (2010). Cambridge Handbook of Strategy as Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: McKenna, C. D. (2006). The World's Newest Profession: Management Consulting in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: Angwin, D., S. Paroutis and S. Mitson (2009). 'Connecting up strategy: are senior strategy directors a missing link?', California Management Review, 51, pp. 74-84. – reference: Clarke, C. J. (1997). 'The strategic planning society - the first 30 years', Long Range Planning, 30, pp. 327-333. – reference: Knights, D. and G. Morgan (1991). 'Corporate strategy, organizations, and subjectivity: a crtique', Organization Studies, 12, pp. 251-273. – reference: Chesbrough, H. W. (2003). Open Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting from Technology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. – reference: Jelinek, M. (1979). Institutionalizing Innovation: a Study of Organizational Learning Systems. New York: Praeger. – reference: Wilkinson, A. (2003). 'Riskworld scenarios', Journal of Risk Research, 6, pp. 297-305. – reference: Heracleous, L. and C. Jacobs (2011). Crafting Strategies: Embodied Metaphors in Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: Tett, G. (2009). Fool's Gold: How the Bold Dream of a Small Tribe at J.P. Morgan was Corrupted by Wall Street Greed and Unleashed a Catastrophe. New York: Free Press. – reference: Bartlett, C. and S. Ghoshal (1989). Managing Across Borders: the Transnational Solution. Boston, MA: Harvard Bussiness School Press. – reference: Montgomery, C. (2008). 'Putting leadership back into strategy', Harvard Business Review, 86, pp. 54-60. – reference: Johnson, G., S. Prashantham, S. Floyd and N. Bourque (2010). 'The ritualization of strategy workshops', Organization Studies, 31, pp. 1589-1618. – reference: Kiechel, W. (2010). Lords of Strategy: The Secret Intellectual History of the New Corporate World. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. – reference: Davis, G. F. (2009). Managed by the Markets: How Finance Reshaped America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. – reference: Dahlander, L. and M. Gann (2010). 'How open is innovation?', Research Policy, 39, pp. 699-709. – reference: Whittington, R. (2004). 'Strategy after modernism: recovering practice', European Management Review, 1, pp. 62-68. – reference: Rollinson, R. (2011). 'Should strategy professionals be certified?', Strategy and Leadership, 39, pp. 39-43. – reference: Hamel, G. and P. Skarzynski (1999). 'New wealth', Executive Excellence, 16, pp. 3-9. – reference: Marris, R. (1964). The Economic Theory of Managerial Capitalism. New York: Free Press. – reference: Kaplan, S. (2011). 'Strategy and Powerpoint: the epistemic culture and machinery of strategy making', Organization Science, 22, pp. 320-346. – reference: Jarzabkowski, P., J. Balogun and D. Seidl (2007). 'Strategizing: the challenges of a practice perspective', Human Relations, 60, pp. 5-27. – reference: Almirall, E. and R. Casadesus-Masanell (2010). 'Open versus closed innovation: a model of discovery and divergence', Academy of Management Review, 35, pp. 27-47. – reference: Budd, A. (1978). The Politics of Economic Planning. London: Fontana. – reference: Mintzberg, H. (1994). The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning. London: Prentice Hall. – reference: Vaara, E., V. Sorsa and P. Palli (2010). 'On the force potential of strategy texts: a critical discourse analysis of a strategic plan and its power effects in a city organization', Organization, 17, pp. 685-702. – reference: Rivkin, J. (2000). 'Imitation of complex strategies', Management Science, 46, pp. 824-44. – reference: Chesbrough, H. W. and M. Appleyard (2007). 'Open innovation and strategy', California Management Review, 50, pp. 57-65. – reference: Lorente-Vicente, R. (2001). 'Specificity and opacity as resource-based determinants of capital structure: evidence for Spanish manufacturing firms', Strategic Management Journal, 22, pp. 157-170. – reference: Hodgson, D. (2002). 'Disciplining the professional: the case of project management', Journal of Management Studies, 39, pp. 803-821. – reference: Hambrick, D. C. and M.-J. Chen (2008). 'Strategy as an admittance-seeking social movement', Academy of Management Review, 33, pp. 32-54. – reference: Whittington, R. and L. Cailluet (2008). 'Special Issue Introduction: The crafts of strategy', Long Range Planning, 41, pp. 241-247. – reference: Roney, C. W. (2005). Strategic Management Methodology: Generally Accepted Principles for Practitioners. Westport, CT: Praeger. – reference: Breene, R., P. Nunes and W. Shill (2007). 'The chief strategy officer', Harvard Business Review, 85, pp. 84-93. – reference: Wilson, I. (1994). 'Strategic planning isn't dead - it changed', Long Range Planning, 27, pp. 12-24. – reference: Jarzabkowski, P. and J. Balogun (2009). 'The practice and process of delivering integration through strategic planning', Journal of Management Studies, 46, pp. 1255-1288. – reference: MacDonald, K. M. (1984). 'Professional formation: the case of Scottish accountants', British Journal of Sociology, 35, pp. 174-189. – reference: FEACO (2009). Survey of the European Management Consultancy Market, 2007/2008. Brussels: FEACO. – reference: Abbott, A. (1988). The System of Professions: an Essay on the Expert Division of Labour. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. – reference: Olgiati, V. (2010). 'The concept of profession today: a disquieting misnomer', Contemporary Sociology, 9, pp. 804-842. – reference: Rigby, D. and B. Bilodeau (2009). Management Tools and Trends 2009. 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'Strategic factor market intelligence: an application of information economics to strategy formulation and competitor intelligence', Management Science., 47, pp. 1621-1638. – reference: Ocasio, W. and J. Joseph (2008). 'Rise and fall - or transformation: the evolution of strategic planning at the General Electric Company, 1940-2006', Long Range Planning, 41, pp. 248-272. – reference: Andrews, K. R. (1971). The Concept of Corporate Strategy. Homewood, IL: Irwin. – reference: Kiechel, W. (1982). 'Corporate strategists under fire', Fortune, 27, pp. 38-44. – reference: Foss, N. (2011). 'Why micro-foundations for resource-based theory are needed and what they might look like', Journal of Management, forthcoming. – reference: Hutton, A. (2004). 'Beyond financial reporting: an integrated approach to disclosure', Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, 16, pp. 8-16. – reference: Westley, F. (1990). 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Snippet	This paper takes the long view on the development of strategy as a profession, from the 1950s to today. We identify strategy as a structurally precarious...
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SubjectTerms	Beruf Business administration Humanities and Social Sciences Management research Management theory Organization development Organizational behaviour Strategic behaviour Strategic management Strategic studies Strategisches Management Studies Transparency Uncertainty
Title	Opening Strategy: Evolution of a Precarious Profession
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