Safety pharmacology of acute LSD administration in healthy subjects

Rationale Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and cluster headache. Objectives Safety data on clinical safety are available from small studie...

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Published inPsychopharmacology Vol. 239; no. 6; pp. 1893 - 1905
Main Authors Holze, Friederike, Caluori, Toya V., Vizeli, Patrick, Liechti, Matthias E.
Format Journal Article
LanguageEnglish
Published Berlin/Heidelberg Springer Berlin Heidelberg 01.06.2022
Springer
Springer Nature B.V
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Abstract Rationale Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and cluster headache. Objectives Safety data on clinical safety are available from small studies but not from larger samples. We report safety pharmacology data from a large pooled study sample on acute effects of LSD in healthy subjects. Methods We conducted a pooled analysis of four double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover studies that included a total of 83 healthy subjects and 131 single-dose administrations of LSD. LSD administrations were matched to dose groups according to measured LSD peak plasma concentrations to adjust for uncertainties in the correct LSD dose in some studies. Single doses were 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg of LSD base. We investigated subjective effects (self-rated any drug effect, good drug effect, bad drug effect, and anxiety), blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, duration of the acute LSD response, acute (12 h) and subacute (24 h) adverse effects, reports of flashbacks, and liver and kidney function before and after the studies. Results LSD dose-dependently increased subjective, physiologic, and adverse effects. The dose–response curves for the proportions of subjects with a certain amount of a subjective effect were steeper and reached a higher maximum for positive acute subjective effects compared with negative acute subjective effects. Maximal ratings of > 50% good drug effects were reached in 37%, 91%, 96%, and 91% of the LSD administrations at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg. Maximal ratings of > 50% bad drug effects were reached in 0%, 9%, 27%, 31% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean ratings of Oceanic Boundlessness were 10%, 25%, 41%, and 44%, and mean ratings of Anxious Ego-Dissolution were 3.4%, 13%, 20%, and 22% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. The physiologic effects of LSD were moderate. None of the subjects had systolic blood pressure > 180 mmHg at any time. Peak heart rate > 100 beats/min was observed in 0%, 6%, 20%, and 25% of the subjects at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Maximal heart rates of 129 and 121 beats/min were observed in one subject at the 50 and 200 µg doses, respectively. Peak body temperature > 38° was observed in 0%, 11%, 7%, and 34% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean acute adverse effect scores on the List of Complaints were 5.6, 9.2, 12, and 13 at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Kidney and liver function parameters were unaltered. Six subjects reported transient flashback phenomena. Conclusions The single-dose administration of LSD is safe in regard to acute psychological and physical harm in healthy subjects in a controlled research setting.
AbstractList Rationale Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and cluster headache. Objectives Safety data on clinical safety are available from small studies but not from larger samples. We report safety pharmacology data from a large pooled study sample on acute effects of LSD in healthy subjects. Methods We conducted a pooled analysis of four double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover studies that included a total of 83 healthy subjects and 131 single-dose administrations of LSD. LSD administrations were matched to dose groups according to measured LSD peak plasma concentrations to adjust for uncertainties in the correct LSD dose in some studies. Single doses were 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g of LSD base. We investigated subjective effects (self-rated any drug effect, good drug effect, bad drug effect, and anxiety), blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, duration of the acute LSD response, acute (12 h) and subacute (24 h) adverse effects, reports of flashbacks, and liver and kidney function before and after the studies. Results LSD dose-dependently increased subjective, physiologic, and adverse effects. The dose-response curves for the proportions of subjects with a certain amount of a subjective effect were steeper and reached a higher maximum for positive acute subjective effects compared with negative acute subjective effects. Maximal ratings of > 50% good drug effects were reached in 37%, 91%, 96%, and 91% of the LSD administrations at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g. Maximal ratings of > 50% bad drug effects were reached in 0%, 9%, 27%, 31% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g, respectively. Mean ratings of Oceanic Boundlessness were 10%, 25%, 41%, and 44%, and mean ratings of Anxious Ego-Dissolution were 3.4%, 13%, 20%, and 22% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g, respectively. The physiologic effects of LSD were moderate. None of the subjects had systolic blood pressure > 180 mmHg at any time. Peak heart rate > 100 beats/min was observed in 0%, 6%, 20%, and 25% of the subjects at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g, respectively. Maximal heart rates of 129 and 121 beats/min were observed in one subject at the 50 and 200 [micro]g doses, respectively. Peak body temperature > 38° was observed in 0%, 11%, 7%, and 34% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g, respectively. Mean acute adverse effect scores on the List of Complaints were 5.6, 9.2, 12, and 13 at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g, respectively. Kidney and liver function parameters were unaltered. Six subjects reported transient flashback phenomena. Conclusions The single-dose administration of LSD is safe in regard to acute psychological and physical harm in healthy subjects in a controlled research setting.
RationaleLysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and cluster headache.ObjectivesSafety data on clinical safety are available from small studies but not from larger samples. We report safety pharmacology data from a large pooled study sample on acute effects of LSD in healthy subjects.MethodsWe conducted a pooled analysis of four double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover studies that included a total of 83 healthy subjects and 131 single-dose administrations of LSD. LSD administrations were matched to dose groups according to measured LSD peak plasma concentrations to adjust for uncertainties in the correct LSD dose in some studies. Single doses were 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg of LSD base. We investigated subjective effects (self-rated any drug effect, good drug effect, bad drug effect, and anxiety), blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, duration of the acute LSD response, acute (12 h) and subacute (24 h) adverse effects, reports of flashbacks, and liver and kidney function before and after the studies.ResultsLSD dose-dependently increased subjective, physiologic, and adverse effects. The dose–response curves for the proportions of subjects with a certain amount of a subjective effect were steeper and reached a higher maximum for positive acute subjective effects compared with negative acute subjective effects. Maximal ratings of > 50% good drug effects were reached in 37%, 91%, 96%, and 91% of the LSD administrations at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg. Maximal ratings of > 50% bad drug effects were reached in 0%, 9%, 27%, 31% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean ratings of Oceanic Boundlessness were 10%, 25%, 41%, and 44%, and mean ratings of Anxious Ego-Dissolution were 3.4%, 13%, 20%, and 22% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. The physiologic effects of LSD were moderate. None of the subjects had systolic blood pressure > 180 mmHg at any time. Peak heart rate > 100 beats/min was observed in 0%, 6%, 20%, and 25% of the subjects at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Maximal heart rates of 129 and 121 beats/min were observed in one subject at the 50 and 200 µg doses, respectively. Peak body temperature > 38° was observed in 0%, 11%, 7%, and 34% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean acute adverse effect scores on the List of Complaints were 5.6, 9.2, 12, and 13 at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Kidney and liver function parameters were unaltered. Six subjects reported transient flashback phenomena.ConclusionsThe single-dose administration of LSD is safe in regard to acute psychological and physical harm in healthy subjects in a controlled research setting.
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and cluster headache.RATIONALELysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and cluster headache.Safety data on clinical safety are available from small studies but not from larger samples. We report safety pharmacology data from a large pooled study sample on acute effects of LSD in healthy subjects.OBJECTIVESSafety data on clinical safety are available from small studies but not from larger samples. We report safety pharmacology data from a large pooled study sample on acute effects of LSD in healthy subjects.We conducted a pooled analysis of four double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover studies that included a total of 83 healthy subjects and 131 single-dose administrations of LSD. LSD administrations were matched to dose groups according to measured LSD peak plasma concentrations to adjust for uncertainties in the correct LSD dose in some studies. Single doses were 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg of LSD base. We investigated subjective effects (self-rated any drug effect, good drug effect, bad drug effect, and anxiety), blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, duration of the acute LSD response, acute (12 h) and subacute (24 h) adverse effects, reports of flashbacks, and liver and kidney function before and after the studies.METHODSWe conducted a pooled analysis of four double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover studies that included a total of 83 healthy subjects and 131 single-dose administrations of LSD. LSD administrations were matched to dose groups according to measured LSD peak plasma concentrations to adjust for uncertainties in the correct LSD dose in some studies. Single doses were 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg of LSD base. We investigated subjective effects (self-rated any drug effect, good drug effect, bad drug effect, and anxiety), blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, duration of the acute LSD response, acute (12 h) and subacute (24 h) adverse effects, reports of flashbacks, and liver and kidney function before and after the studies.LSD dose-dependently increased subjective, physiologic, and adverse effects. The dose-response curves for the proportions of subjects with a certain amount of a subjective effect were steeper and reached a higher maximum for positive acute subjective effects compared with negative acute subjective effects. Maximal ratings of > 50% good drug effects were reached in 37%, 91%, 96%, and 91% of the LSD administrations at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg. Maximal ratings of > 50% bad drug effects were reached in 0%, 9%, 27%, 31% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean ratings of Oceanic Boundlessness were 10%, 25%, 41%, and 44%, and mean ratings of Anxious Ego-Dissolution were 3.4%, 13%, 20%, and 22% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. The physiologic effects of LSD were moderate. None of the subjects had systolic blood pressure > 180 mmHg at any time. Peak heart rate > 100 beats/min was observed in 0%, 6%, 20%, and 25% of the subjects at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Maximal heart rates of 129 and 121 beats/min were observed in one subject at the 50 and 200 µg doses, respectively. Peak body temperature > 38° was observed in 0%, 11%, 7%, and 34% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean acute adverse effect scores on the List of Complaints were 5.6, 9.2, 12, and 13 at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Kidney and liver function parameters were unaltered. Six subjects reported transient flashback phenomena.RESULTSLSD dose-dependently increased subjective, physiologic, and adverse effects. The dose-response curves for the proportions of subjects with a certain amount of a subjective effect were steeper and reached a higher maximum for positive acute subjective effects compared with negative acute subjective effects. Maximal ratings of > 50% good drug effects were reached in 37%, 91%, 96%, and 91% of the LSD administrations at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg. Maximal ratings of > 50% bad drug effects were reached in 0%, 9%, 27%, 31% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean ratings of Oceanic Boundlessness were 10%, 25%, 41%, and 44%, and mean ratings of Anxious Ego-Dissolution were 3.4%, 13%, 20%, and 22% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. The physiologic effects of LSD were moderate. None of the subjects had systolic blood pressure > 180 mmHg at any time. Peak heart rate > 100 beats/min was observed in 0%, 6%, 20%, and 25% of the subjects at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Maximal heart rates of 129 and 121 beats/min were observed in one subject at the 50 and 200 µg doses, respectively. Peak body temperature > 38° was observed in 0%, 11%, 7%, and 34% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean acute adverse effect scores on the List of Complaints were 5.6, 9.2, 12, and 13 at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Kidney and liver function parameters were unaltered. Six subjects reported transient flashback phenomena.The single-dose administration of LSD is safe in regard to acute psychological and physical harm in healthy subjects in a controlled research setting.CONCLUSIONSThe single-dose administration of LSD is safe in regard to acute psychological and physical harm in healthy subjects in a controlled research setting.
Rationale Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and cluster headache. Objectives Safety data on clinical safety are available from small studies but not from larger samples. We report safety pharmacology data from a large pooled study sample on acute effects of LSD in healthy subjects. Methods We conducted a pooled analysis of four double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover studies that included a total of 83 healthy subjects and 131 single-dose administrations of LSD. LSD administrations were matched to dose groups according to measured LSD peak plasma concentrations to adjust for uncertainties in the correct LSD dose in some studies. Single doses were 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg of LSD base. We investigated subjective effects (self-rated any drug effect, good drug effect, bad drug effect, and anxiety), blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, duration of the acute LSD response, acute (12 h) and subacute (24 h) adverse effects, reports of flashbacks, and liver and kidney function before and after the studies. Results LSD dose-dependently increased subjective, physiologic, and adverse effects. The dose–response curves for the proportions of subjects with a certain amount of a subjective effect were steeper and reached a higher maximum for positive acute subjective effects compared with negative acute subjective effects. Maximal ratings of > 50% good drug effects were reached in 37%, 91%, 96%, and 91% of the LSD administrations at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg. Maximal ratings of > 50% bad drug effects were reached in 0%, 9%, 27%, 31% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean ratings of Oceanic Boundlessness were 10%, 25%, 41%, and 44%, and mean ratings of Anxious Ego-Dissolution were 3.4%, 13%, 20%, and 22% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. The physiologic effects of LSD were moderate. None of the subjects had systolic blood pressure > 180 mmHg at any time. Peak heart rate > 100 beats/min was observed in 0%, 6%, 20%, and 25% of the subjects at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Maximal heart rates of 129 and 121 beats/min were observed in one subject at the 50 and 200 µg doses, respectively. Peak body temperature > 38° was observed in 0%, 11%, 7%, and 34% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean acute adverse effect scores on the List of Complaints were 5.6, 9.2, 12, and 13 at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Kidney and liver function parameters were unaltered. Six subjects reported transient flashback phenomena. Conclusions The single-dose administration of LSD is safe in regard to acute psychological and physical harm in healthy subjects in a controlled research setting.
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and cluster headache. Safety data on clinical safety are available from small studies but not from larger samples. We report safety pharmacology data from a large pooled study sample on acute effects of LSD in healthy subjects. We conducted a pooled analysis of four double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover studies that included a total of 83 healthy subjects and 131 single-dose administrations of LSD. LSD administrations were matched to dose groups according to measured LSD peak plasma concentrations to adjust for uncertainties in the correct LSD dose in some studies. Single doses were 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg of LSD base. We investigated subjective effects (self-rated any drug effect, good drug effect, bad drug effect, and anxiety), blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, duration of the acute LSD response, acute (12 h) and subacute (24 h) adverse effects, reports of flashbacks, and liver and kidney function before and after the studies. LSD dose-dependently increased subjective, physiologic, and adverse effects. The dose-response curves for the proportions of subjects with a certain amount of a subjective effect were steeper and reached a higher maximum for positive acute subjective effects compared with negative acute subjective effects. Maximal ratings of > 50% good drug effects were reached in 37%, 91%, 96%, and 91% of the LSD administrations at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg. Maximal ratings of > 50% bad drug effects were reached in 0%, 9%, 27%, 31% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean ratings of Oceanic Boundlessness were 10%, 25%, 41%, and 44%, and mean ratings of Anxious Ego-Dissolution were 3.4%, 13%, 20%, and 22% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. The physiologic effects of LSD were moderate. None of the subjects had systolic blood pressure > 180 mmHg at any time. Peak heart rate > 100 beats/min was observed in 0%, 6%, 20%, and 25% of the subjects at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Maximal heart rates of 129 and 121 beats/min were observed in one subject at the 50 and 200 µg doses, respectively. Peak body temperature > 38° was observed in 0%, 11%, 7%, and 34% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Mean acute adverse effect scores on the List of Complaints were 5.6, 9.2, 12, and 13 at 25, 50, 100, and 200 µg, respectively. Kidney and liver function parameters were unaltered. Six subjects reported transient flashback phenomena. The single-dose administration of LSD is safe in regard to acute psychological and physical harm in healthy subjects in a controlled research setting.
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and cluster headache. Safety data on clinical safety are available from small studies but not from larger samples. We report safety pharmacology data from a large pooled study sample on acute effects of LSD in healthy subjects. We conducted a pooled analysis of four double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover studies that included a total of 83 healthy subjects and 131 single-dose administrations of LSD. LSD administrations were matched to dose groups according to measured LSD peak plasma concentrations to adjust for uncertainties in the correct LSD dose in some studies. Single doses were 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g of LSD base. We investigated subjective effects (self-rated any drug effect, good drug effect, bad drug effect, and anxiety), blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, duration of the acute LSD response, acute (12 h) and subacute (24 h) adverse effects, reports of flashbacks, and liver and kidney function before and after the studies. LSD dose-dependently increased subjective, physiologic, and adverse effects. The dose-response curves for the proportions of subjects with a certain amount of a subjective effect were steeper and reached a higher maximum for positive acute subjective effects compared with negative acute subjective effects. Maximal ratings of > 50% good drug effects were reached in 37%, 91%, 96%, and 91% of the LSD administrations at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g. Maximal ratings of > 50% bad drug effects were reached in 0%, 9%, 27%, 31% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g, respectively. Mean ratings of Oceanic Boundlessness were 10%, 25%, 41%, and 44%, and mean ratings of Anxious Ego-Dissolution were 3.4%, 13%, 20%, and 22% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g, respectively. The physiologic effects of LSD were moderate. None of the subjects had systolic blood pressure > 180 mmHg at any time. Peak heart rate > 100 beats/min was observed in 0%, 6%, 20%, and 25% of the subjects at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g, respectively. Maximal heart rates of 129 and 121 beats/min were observed in one subject at the 50 and 200 [micro]g doses, respectively. Peak body temperature > 38° was observed in 0%, 11%, 7%, and 34% at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g, respectively. Mean acute adverse effect scores on the List of Complaints were 5.6, 9.2, 12, and 13 at 25, 50, 100, and 200 [micro]g, respectively. Kidney and liver function parameters were unaltered. Six subjects reported transient flashback phenomena. The single-dose administration of LSD is safe in regard to acute psychological and physical harm in healthy subjects in a controlled research setting.
Audience Academic
Author Liechti, Matthias E.
Vizeli, Patrick
Caluori, Toya V.
Holze, Friederike
Author_xml – sequence: 1
  givenname: Friederike
  surname: Holze
  fullname: Holze, Friederike
  organization: Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel
– sequence: 2
  givenname: Toya V.
  surname: Caluori
  fullname: Caluori, Toya V.
  organization: Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel
– sequence: 3
  givenname: Patrick
  surname: Vizeli
  fullname: Vizeli, Patrick
  organization: Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel
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  givenname: Matthias E.
  surname: Liechti
  fullname: Liechti, Matthias E.
  email: matthias.liechti@usb.ch
  organization: Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel
BackLink https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34515824$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed
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Issue 6
Keywords Heart rate
Flashback
Subjective effects
Blood pressure
Safety
Concentration
LSD
Language English
License 2021. The Author(s).
Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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Snippet Rationale Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and...
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and psychiatric...
Rationale Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and...
RationaleLysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is used in psychiatric and psychological research and investigated as a potential treatment for medical and...
SourceID pubmedcentral
proquest
gale
pubmed
crossref
springer
SourceType Open Access Repository
Aggregation Database
Index Database
Enrichment Source
Publisher
StartPage 1893
SubjectTerms Acute effects
Analysis
Anxiety
Biomedical and Life Sciences
Biomedicine
Blood pressure
Body temperature
Clinical trials
Cross-Over Studies
Dosage and administration
Double-Blind Method
Drug dosages
Hallucinogens - adverse effects
Healthy Volunteers
Heart Rate
Humans
Kidneys
Liver
LSD
LSD (Drug)
Lysergic acid diethylamide
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide - adverse effects
Lysergide
Mental disorders
Neurosciences
Original Investigation
Pharmacology
Pharmacology/Toxicology
Physiological aspects
Psychiatry
Psychological aspects
Safety
Side effects
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Title Safety pharmacology of acute LSD administration in healthy subjects
URI https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-021-05978-6
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34515824
https://www.proquest.com/docview/2672839891
https://www.proquest.com/docview/2572215144
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PMC9166834
Volume 239
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