Learning More from Political Communication Experiments: Pretreatment and Its Effects
Research on political communication effects has enjoyed great progress over the past 25 years. A key ingredient underlying these advances is the increased usage of experiments that demonstrate how communications influence opinions and behaviors. Virtually all of these studies pay scant attention to...
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| Published in | American journal of political science Vol. 56; no. 4; pp. 875 - 896 |
|---|---|
| Main Authors | , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
Malden, USA
Blackwell Publishing Inc
01.10.2012
Wiley Subscription Services Blackwell Publishing Ltd |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
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| Abstract | Research on political communication effects has enjoyed great progress over the past 25 years. A key ingredient underlying these advances is the increased usage of experiments that demonstrate how communications influence opinions and behaviors. Virtually all of these studies pay scant attention to events that occur prior to the experiment—that is, in "pretreatment events." In this article, we explore how and when the pretreatment environment affects experimental outcomes. We present two studies—one where we control the pretreatment environment and one where it naturally occurred—to show how pretreatment effects can influence experimental outcomes. We argue that, under certain conditions, attending to pretreatment dynamics leads to novel insights, including a more accurate portrait of the pliability of the mass public and the identification of potentially two groups of citizens—what we call malleability reactive and dogmatic. |
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| AbstractList | Research on political communication effects has enjoyed great progress over the past 25 years. A key ingredient underlying these advances is the increased usage of experiments that demonstrate how communications influence opinions and behaviors. Virtually all of these studies pay scant attention to events that occur prior to the experiment--that is, in "pretreatment events." In this article, we explore how and when the pretreatment environment affects experimental outcomes. We present two studies--one where we control the pretreatment environment and one where it naturally occurred--to show how pretreatment effects can influence experimental outcomes. We argue that, under certain conditions, attending to pretreatment dynamics leads to novel insights, including a more accurate portrait of the pliability of the mass public and the identification of potentially two groups of citizens--what we call malleability reactive and dogmatic. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT] Research on political communication effects has enjoyed great progress over the past 25 years. A key ingredient underlying these advances is the increased usage of experiments that demonstrate how communications influence opinions and behaviors. Virtually all of these studies pay scant attention to events that occur prior to the experiment-that is, in 'pretreatment events.' In this article, we explore how and when the pretreatment environment affects experimental outcomes. We present two studies-one where we control the pretreatment environment and one where it naturally occurred-to show how pretreatment effects can influence experimental outcomes. We argue that, under certain conditions, attending to pretreatment dynamics leads to novel insights, including a more accurate portrait of the pliability of the mass public and the identification of potentially two groups of citizens-what we call malleability reactive and dogmatic. Adapted from the source document. Research on political communication effects has enjoyed great progress over the past 25 years. A key ingredient underlying these advances is the increased usage of experiments that demonstrate how communications influence opinions and behaviors. Virtually all of these studies pay scant attention to events that occur prior to the experiment - that is, in 'pretreatment events.' In this article, we explore how and when the pretreatment environment affects experimental outcomes. We present two studies - one where we control the pretreatment environment and one where it naturally occurred - to show how pretreatment effects can influence experimental outcomes. We argue that, under certain conditions, attending to pretreatment dynamics leads to novel insights, including a more accurate portrait of the pliability of the mass public and the identification of potentially two groups of citizens - what we call malleability reactive and dogmatic. Reprinted by permission of Blackwell Publishers Research on political communication effects has enjoyed great progress over the past 25 years. A key ingredient underlying these advances is the increased usage of experiments that demonstrate how communications influence opinions and behaviors. Virtually all of these studies pay scant attention to events that occur prior to the experiment—that is, in “pretreatment events.” In this article, we explore how and when the pretreatment environment affects experimental outcomes. We present two studies—one where we control the pretreatment environment and one where it naturally occurred—to show how pretreatment effects can influence experimental outcomes. We argue that, under certain conditions, attending to pretreatment dynamics leads to novel insights, including a more accurate portrait of the pliability of the mass public and the identification of potentially two groups of citizens—what we call malleability reactive and dogmatic. |
| Author | Leeper, Thomas J. Druckman, James N. |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: James N. surname: Druckman fullname: Druckman, James N. – sequence: 2 givenname: Thomas J. surname: Leeper fullname: Leeper, Thomas J. |
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| Notes | ArticleID:AJPS582 istex:7DC5B99F70B5CB333CCD17E3D34446A90F9C0EDE ark:/67375/WNG-9D9JVJQN-B http://dvn.iq.harvard.edu/dvn/dv/leeper We thank seminar participants at Harvard University, Stanford University, the University of Chicago, and the University of Kansas for helpful comments. We also thank Laura Stoker for particularly insightful comments. Data from this study can be found at . SourceType-Scholarly Journals-1 ObjectType-Feature-1 content type line 14 ObjectType-Article-2 content type line 23 ObjectType-Article-1 ObjectType-Feature-2 |
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| Publisher | Blackwell Publishing Inc Wiley Subscription Services Blackwell Publishing Ltd |
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| References | Malhotra, Neil, and Yotam Margalit. 2010. "Short-Term Communication Effects or Longstanding Dispositions?" Journal of Politics 73(3): 852-67. Druckman, James N., James H. Kuklinski, and Lee Sigelman. 2009. "The Unmet Potential of Interdisciplinary Research. Political Behavior 31(4): 485-510. McGraw, Kathleen M., and Thomas M. Dolan. 2007. "Personifying the State." Political Psychology 28(3): 299-327. Tewksbury, David, Jennifer Jones, Matthew W. Peske, Ashlea Raymond, and William Vig. 2000. "The Interaction of News and Advocate Frames." Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 77(4): 804-29. Miller, Joanne M., and David A. M. Peterson. 2004. "Theoretical and Empirical Implications of Attitude Strength." Journal of Politics 66(3): 847-67. Barabas, Jason, and Jennifer Jerit. 2010. "Are Survey Experiments Externally Valid? American Political Science Review 104(2): 226-42. Kent, David, and Rodney Hayward. 2007. "When Averages Hide Individual Differences in Clinical Trials." American Scientist 95(1): 60-68. Zanna, Mark P., Russell H. Fazio, and Michael Ross. 1994. "The Persistence of Persuasion." In Beliefs, Reasoning, and Decision Making , ed. Roger C. Schank and Ellen Langer. Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum, 347-62. Redlawsk, David P. 2002. "Hot Cognition or Cool Consideration?" Journal of Politics 64(4): 1021-44. Hillygus, D. Sunshine, and Simon Jackman. 2003. "Voter Decision Making in Election 2000." American Journal of Political Science 47(4): 583-96. Druckman, James N., Cari Lynn Hennessy, Kristi St. Charles, and Jonathan Weber. 2010. "Competing Rhetoric over Time." Journal of Politics 72(1): 136-48. Druckman, James N., Jordan Fein, and Thomas J. Leeper. n.d. "A Source of Bias in Public Opinion Stability. American Political Science Review . Forthcoming. Mondak, Jeffrey J. 1995. Nothing to Read . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press. Tormala, Zakary L., and Richard E. Petty. 2001. "Online versus Memory-Based Processing." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27(12): 1599-1612. Gaines, Brian J., James H. Kuklinski, and Paul J. Quirk. 2007. "The Logic of the Survey Experiment Reexamined." Political Analysis 15(1): 1-20. Hovland, Carl I. 1959. "Reconciling Conflicting Results Derived from Experimental and Survey Studies of Attitude Change." American Psychologist 14(1): 8-17. Blalock, Hubert M., Jr. 1979. Social Statistics . 2nd ed. New York : McGraw-Hill. Ansolabehere, Stephen, Jonathan Rodden, and James M. Snyder Jr. 2008. "The Strength of Issues. American Political Science Review 102(2): 215-32. Visser, Penny S., and Jon A. Krosnick. 1998. "Development of Attitude Strength over the Life Cycle." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75(6): 1389-1410. Priester, Joseph, Duane Wegener, Richard Petty, and Leandre Fabrigar. 1999. ''Examining the Psychological Processes Underlying the Sleeper Effect.'' Media Psychology 1(1): 27-48. Brewer, Paul R. 2003. "Values, Political Knowledge, and Public Opinion about Gay Rights. Public Opinion Quarterly 67(2): 173-201. Druckman, James N., and Kjersten R. Nelson. 2003. "Framing and Deliberation." American Journal of Political Science 47(4): 728-44. Druckman, James N., and Arthur Lupia. 2000. "Preference Formation." Annual Review of Political Science 3: 1-24. Kunda, Ziva. 2001. Social Cognition . Cambridge , MA : MIT Press. Southwell, Brian G., Carlin Henry Barmada, Robert C. Hornik, and David Maklan. 2002. "Can We Measure Encoded Exposure?" Journal of Health Communication 7(5): 1-9. Lodge, Milton, Marco R. Steenbergen, and Shawn Brau. 1995. "The Responsive Voter." American Political Science Review 89(1): 309-26. Druckman, James N. 2004. "Political Preference Formation." American Political Science Review 98(4): 671-86. Rudolph, Thomas J. 2006. "Triangulating Political Responsibility." Political Psychology 27(1): 99-122. Miller, Joanne M., and Jon A. Krosnick. 2000. "News Media Impact on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations." American Journal of Political Science 44(2): 301-15. Hermans, Dirk, Jan De Houwer, and Paul Eelen. 2001. "A Time Course Analysis of the Affective Priming Effect." Cognition and Emotion 15(2): 143-65. Mackie, Diane M., and Arlene G. Asuncion. 1990. "Online and Memory-Based Modifications of Attitudes." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59(1): 5-16. de Vreese, Claes H. 2004. "Primed by the Euro." Scandinavian Political Studies 27(1): 45-65. Hastie, Reid, and Bernadette Park. 1986. "The Relationship between Memory and Judgment Depends on Whether the Judgment Task Is Memory-Based or Online." Psychological Review 93(3): 258-68. Druckman, James N., and Toby Bolsen. 2011. "Framing, Motivated Reasoning, and Opinions about Emergent Technologies." Journal of Communication 61(4): 659-88. Wood, B. Dan, and Arnold Vedlitz. 2007. "Issue Definition, Information Processing, and the Politics of Global Warming." American Journal of Political Science 51(3): 552-68. Bizer, George Y., Zakary L. Tormala, Derek D. Rucker, and Richard E. Petty. 2006. "Memory-Based versus Online Processing. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42(5): 646-53. Visser, Penny S., George Y. Bizer, and Jon A. Krosnick. 2006. "Exploring the Latent Structure of Strength-Related Attitude Attributes." Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 38(6): 1-67. Kinder, Donald R. 2007. "Curmudgeonly Advice." Journal of Communication 57(1): 155-62. Bartels, Larry. 1993. "Messages Received. American Political Science Review 87(2): 267-85. Rohrschneider, Robert, and Matthew Loveless. 2010. "Macro Salience." Journal of Politics 72(4): 1-17. Best, Samuel J., and Monika L. McDermott. 2007. "Measuring Opinions vs. Non-Opinions. The Forum 5(2): 7. Chong, Dennis, and James N. Druckman. 2010. "Dynamic Public Opinion." American Political Science Review 104(4): 663-80. Gerber, Alan S., Neil Malhotra, Conor M. Dowling, and David Doherty. 2010. "Publication Bias in Two Political Behavior Literatures." American Politics Research 38(4): 591-613. Bizer, George Y., Jon A. Krosnick, Allyson L. Holbrook, S. Christian Wheeler, Derek D. Rucker, and Richard E. Petty. 2004. "The Impact of Personality on Cognitive, Behavioral, and Affective Political Processes. Journal of Personality 72(5): 995-1027. Druckman, James N., Donald P. Green, James H. Kuklinski, and Arthur Lupia, eds. 2011. Cambridge Handbook of Experimental Political Science . New York : Cambridge University Press. Druckman, James N. 2001. "The Implications of Framing Effects for Citizen Competence." Political Behavior 23(3): 225-56. Zaller, John. 1992. The Nature and Origin of Mass Opinions . New York : Cambridge University Press. Price, Vincent, and John Zaller. 1993. "Who Gets the News?" Public Opinion Quarterly 57(2): 133-64. Chong, Dennis, and James N. Druckman. 2007. "Framing Public Opinion in Competitive Democracies." American Political Science Review 101(4): 637-55. Nelson, Thomas E., Rosalee A. Clawson, and Zoe M. Oxley. 1997. "Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and Its Effect on Tolerance." American Political Science Review 91(3): 567-83. Jarvis, W. Blair, and Richard E. Petty. 1996. "The Need to Evaluate." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70(1): 172-94. 2008; 102(2) 2007; 57(1) 2007; 101 2001; 27(12) 2007; 15(1) 2007; 51(3) 2000; 3 2004; 72(5) 1998; 24(3) 2011b 2010; 104(4) 2011a 2007; 95(1) 1998; 75(6) 1996; 70(1) 1997; 91(3) 1979 2004; 98(4) 1990; 59(1) 93(3) 2000; 44(2) 2010; 38(4) 2001; 15(2) 2003; 67(2) 2001 2000 2004; 66(3) 1959; 14(1) 2001; 23(3) 2006; 38(6) 2006; 27(1) 2010; 73 1993; 57(2) 2002; 64(4) 2007; 28(3) 27 1999; 1(1) 2007; 5(2): 7 2011 2010 2010; 72(4) 1993; 87(2) 2009; 31(4) 2002; 7(5) 2008 2010; 104(2) 2007 2000; 77(4) 1995 2005 1994 2004 1992 2011; 61(4) 1995; 89(1) 2010; 72(1) 2003; 47(4) 2006; 42(5) e_1_2_9_50_1 Druckman James N (e_1_2_9_21_1) Nelson Thomas E. (e_1_2_9_52_1) 1997; 91 e_1_2_9_33_1 e_1_2_9_54_1 Chong Dennis (e_1_2_9_12_1) 2010; 104 Kent David (e_1_2_9_36_1) 2007; 95 Druckman James N (e_1_2_9_19_1) 2010 Ansolabehere Stephen (e_1_2_9_2_1) 2008; 102 Briñol Pablo (e_1_2_9_10_1) 2005 Krosnick Jon A. (e_1_2_9_38_1) 1998 Redlawsk David P (e_1_2_9_56_1) 2002; 64 Zanna Mark P. (e_1_2_9_68_1) 1994 Visser Penny S. (e_1_2_9_65_1) 1998; 75 e_1_2_9_14_1 Southwell Brian G. (e_1_2_9_61_1) 2002; 7 Iyengar Shanto (e_1_2_9_34_1) 2010 e_1_2_9_37_1 e_1_2_9_58_1 e_1_2_9_41_1 e_1_2_9_64_1 e_1_2_9_62_1 e_1_2_9_22_1 e_1_2_9_45_1 e_1_2_9_24_1 e_1_2_9_43_1 e_1_2_9_66_1 de Vreese Claes H (e_1_2_9_16_1); 27 e_1_2_9_6_1 e_1_2_9_4_1 e_1_2_9_60_1 Blalock Hubert M. (e_1_2_9_8_1) 1979 Gaines Brian J. (e_1_2_9_28_1) 2007; 15 Druckman James N (e_1_2_9_18_1) 2004; 98 Rohrschneider Robert (e_1_2_9_57_1) 2010; 72 e_1_2_9_26_1 Best Samuel J. (e_1_2_9_5_1) 2007; 5 e_1_2_9_47_1 Hermans Dirk (e_1_2_9_31_1) 2001; 15 e_1_2_9_53_1 e_1_2_9_11_1 e_1_2_9_32_1 e_1_2_9_55_1 Conner Mark (e_1_2_9_15_1) 2008 Chong Dennis (e_1_2_9_13_1) 2011 Jarvis W. Blair (e_1_2_9_35_1) 1996; 70 Kunda Ziva (e_1_2_9_40_1) 2001 Mondak Jeffrey J (e_1_2_9_51_1) 1995 e_1_2_9_17_1 e_1_2_9_59_1 Druckman James N. (e_1_2_9_20_1) 2011; 61 e_1_2_9_42_1 e_1_2_9_63_1 e_1_2_9_46_1 e_1_2_9_67_1 e_1_2_9_23_1 e_1_2_9_44_1 Krosnick Jon A. (e_1_2_9_39_1) 1994 e_1_2_9_7_1 Hastie Reid (e_1_2_9_30_1); 93 e_1_2_9_3_1 Druckman James N. (e_1_2_9_27_1) 2003; 47 e_1_2_9_9_1 e_1_2_9_25_1 e_1_2_9_48_1 Miller Joanne M. (e_1_2_9_49_1) 2004; 66 e_1_2_9_29_1 |
| References_xml | – reference: Hastie, Reid, and Bernadette Park. 1986. "The Relationship between Memory and Judgment Depends on Whether the Judgment Task Is Memory-Based or Online." Psychological Review 93(3): 258-68. – reference: Visser, Penny S., George Y. Bizer, and Jon A. Krosnick. 2006. "Exploring the Latent Structure of Strength-Related Attitude Attributes." Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 38(6): 1-67. – reference: Hillygus, D. Sunshine, and Simon Jackman. 2003. "Voter Decision Making in Election 2000." American Journal of Political Science 47(4): 583-96. – reference: Mackie, Diane M., and Arlene G. Asuncion. 1990. "Online and Memory-Based Modifications of Attitudes." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59(1): 5-16. – reference: Bartels, Larry. 1993. "Messages Received. American Political Science Review 87(2): 267-85. – reference: Druckman, James N., and Kjersten R. Nelson. 2003. "Framing and Deliberation." American Journal of Political Science 47(4): 728-44. – reference: Malhotra, Neil, and Yotam Margalit. 2010. "Short-Term Communication Effects or Longstanding Dispositions?" Journal of Politics 73(3): 852-67. – reference: Jarvis, W. Blair, and Richard E. Petty. 1996. "The Need to Evaluate." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70(1): 172-94. – reference: Tewksbury, David, Jennifer Jones, Matthew W. Peske, Ashlea Raymond, and William Vig. 2000. "The Interaction of News and Advocate Frames." Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 77(4): 804-29. – reference: Hovland, Carl I. 1959. "Reconciling Conflicting Results Derived from Experimental and Survey Studies of Attitude Change." American Psychologist 14(1): 8-17. – reference: Visser, Penny S., and Jon A. Krosnick. 1998. "Development of Attitude Strength over the Life Cycle." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75(6): 1389-1410. – reference: Druckman, James N., Jordan Fein, and Thomas J. Leeper. n.d. "A Source of Bias in Public Opinion Stability. American Political Science Review . Forthcoming. – reference: Miller, Joanne M., and David A. M. Peterson. 2004. "Theoretical and Empirical Implications of Attitude Strength." Journal of Politics 66(3): 847-67. – reference: Zaller, John. 1992. The Nature and Origin of Mass Opinions . New York : Cambridge University Press. – reference: Druckman, James N., and Toby Bolsen. 2011. "Framing, Motivated Reasoning, and Opinions about Emergent Technologies." Journal of Communication 61(4): 659-88. – reference: Kunda, Ziva. 2001. Social Cognition . Cambridge , MA : MIT Press. – reference: McGraw, Kathleen M., and Thomas M. Dolan. 2007. "Personifying the State." Political Psychology 28(3): 299-327. – reference: Druckman, James N., Cari Lynn Hennessy, Kristi St. Charles, and Jonathan Weber. 2010. "Competing Rhetoric over Time." Journal of Politics 72(1): 136-48. – reference: Brewer, Paul R. 2003. "Values, Political Knowledge, and Public Opinion about Gay Rights. Public Opinion Quarterly 67(2): 173-201. – reference: Lodge, Milton, Marco R. Steenbergen, and Shawn Brau. 1995. "The Responsive Voter." American Political Science Review 89(1): 309-26. – reference: Rohrschneider, Robert, and Matthew Loveless. 2010. "Macro Salience." Journal of Politics 72(4): 1-17. – reference: Nelson, Thomas E., Rosalee A. Clawson, and Zoe M. Oxley. 1997. "Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and Its Effect on Tolerance." American Political Science Review 91(3): 567-83. – reference: Druckman, James N., James H. Kuklinski, and Lee Sigelman. 2009. "The Unmet Potential of Interdisciplinary Research. Political Behavior 31(4): 485-510. – reference: Kent, David, and Rodney Hayward. 2007. "When Averages Hide Individual Differences in Clinical Trials." American Scientist 95(1): 60-68. – reference: Priester, Joseph, Duane Wegener, Richard Petty, and Leandre Fabrigar. 1999. ''Examining the Psychological Processes Underlying the Sleeper Effect.'' Media Psychology 1(1): 27-48. – reference: Gaines, Brian J., James H. Kuklinski, and Paul J. Quirk. 2007. "The Logic of the Survey Experiment Reexamined." Political Analysis 15(1): 1-20. – reference: Southwell, Brian G., Carlin Henry Barmada, Robert C. Hornik, and David Maklan. 2002. "Can We Measure Encoded Exposure?" Journal of Health Communication 7(5): 1-9. – reference: Blalock, Hubert M., Jr. 1979. Social Statistics . 2nd ed. New York : McGraw-Hill. – reference: Druckman, James N., and Arthur Lupia. 2000. "Preference Formation." Annual Review of Political Science 3: 1-24. – reference: Kinder, Donald R. 2007. "Curmudgeonly Advice." Journal of Communication 57(1): 155-62. – reference: Tormala, Zakary L., and Richard E. Petty. 2001. "Online versus Memory-Based Processing." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27(12): 1599-1612. – reference: Hermans, Dirk, Jan De Houwer, and Paul Eelen. 2001. "A Time Course Analysis of the Affective Priming Effect." Cognition and Emotion 15(2): 143-65. – reference: Barabas, Jason, and Jennifer Jerit. 2010. "Are Survey Experiments Externally Valid? American Political Science Review 104(2): 226-42. – reference: Best, Samuel J., and Monika L. McDermott. 2007. "Measuring Opinions vs. Non-Opinions. The Forum 5(2): 7. – reference: Miller, Joanne M., and Jon A. Krosnick. 2000. "News Media Impact on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations." American Journal of Political Science 44(2): 301-15. – reference: Price, Vincent, and John Zaller. 1993. "Who Gets the News?" Public Opinion Quarterly 57(2): 133-64. – reference: Zanna, Mark P., Russell H. Fazio, and Michael Ross. 1994. "The Persistence of Persuasion." In Beliefs, Reasoning, and Decision Making , ed. Roger C. Schank and Ellen Langer. Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum, 347-62. – reference: Bizer, George Y., Jon A. Krosnick, Allyson L. Holbrook, S. Christian Wheeler, Derek D. Rucker, and Richard E. 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| SubjectTerms | Attitude strength Casinos Civil liberties Communication Economic surveys Experimental methods Experiments Framing effects General Public Identification Patriot Act Political behaviour Political campaigns Political Communication Political influences Political opinions Political science Political science research Polls Pretreatment Terrorism |
| Title | Learning More from Political Communication Experiments: Pretreatment and Its Effects |
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