Significance of summer fog and overcast for drought stress and ecological functioning of coastal California endemic plant species
Aim: Fog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare, drought-sensitive plant species are endemic to coastal areas where the dominant summer moisture source is fog. Low clouds that provide water to th...
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| Published in | Journal of biogeography Vol. 36; no. 4; pp. 783 - 799 |
|---|---|
| Main Authors | , , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
Oxford, UK
Blackwell Publishing Ltd
01.04.2009
Blackwell Publishing Blackwell |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
| ISSN | 0305-0270 1365-2699 |
| DOI | 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.02025.x |
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| Abstract | Aim: Fog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare, drought-sensitive plant species are endemic to coastal areas where the dominant summer moisture source is fog. Low clouds that provide water to these semi-arid ecosystems through fog drip can also sharply reduce evaporative water losses by providing shade. We quantified the relative hydrological importance of cloud shading vs. fog drip. We then examined how both factors influence the range dynamics of an apparently fog-dependent plant species spanning a small-scale cloud gradient. Location: The study area is on Santa Cruz Island off the coast of southern California. It is near the southern range limit of bishop pine (Pinus muricata D. Don), a tree endemic to the coasts of California and Baja, Mexico. Methods: We measured climate across a pine stand along a 7 km, coastal-inland elevation transect. Short-term (1-5 years) monitoring and remote sensing data revealed strong climatic gradients driven primarily by cloud cover. Long-term (102 years) effects of these gradients were estimated using a water balance model. Results: We found that shade from persistent low clouds near the coast reduced annual drought stress by 22-40% compared with clearer conditions further inland. Fog drip at higher elevations provided sufficient extra water to reduce annual drought stress by 20-36%. Sites located at both high elevation and nearer the coast were subject to both effects. Together, these effects reduced average annual drought stress by 56% and dramatically reduced the frequency of severe drought over the last century. At lower elevation (without appreciable fog drip) and also near the inland edge of the stand (with less cloud shading) severe droughts episodically kill most pine recruits, thereby limiting the local range of this species. Main conclusions: Persistent cloud shading can influence hydrology as much as fog drip in cloud-affected ecosystems. Understanding the patterns of both cloud shading and fog drip and their respective impacts on ecosystem water budgets is necessary to fully understand past species range shifts and to anticipate future climate change-induced range shifts in fog-dependent ecosystems. |
|---|---|
| AbstractList | Aim
Fog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare, drought‐sensitive plant species are endemic to coastal areas where the dominant summer moisture source is fog. Low clouds that provide water to these semi‐arid ecosystems through fog drip can also sharply reduce evaporative water losses by providing shade. We quantified the relative hydrological importance of cloud shading vs. fog drip. We then examined how both factors influence the range dynamics of an apparently fog‐dependent plant species spanning a small‐scale cloud gradient.
Location
The study area is on Santa Cruz Island off the coast of southern California. It is near the southern range limit of bishop pine (
Pinus muricata
D. Don), a tree endemic to the coasts of California and Baja, Mexico.
Methods
We measured climate across a pine stand along a 7 km, coastal–inland elevation transect. Short‐term (1–5 years) monitoring and remote sensing data revealed strong climatic gradients driven primarily by cloud cover. Long‐term (102 years) effects of these gradients were estimated using a water balance model.
Results
We found that shade from persistent low clouds near the coast reduced annual drought stress by 22–40% compared with clearer conditions further inland. Fog drip at higher elevations provided sufficient extra water to reduce annual drought stress by 20–36%. Sites located at both high elevation and nearer the coast were subject to both effects. Together, these effects reduced average annual drought stress by 56% and dramatically reduced the frequency of severe drought over the last century. At lower elevation (without appreciable fog drip) and also near the inland edge of the stand (with less cloud shading) severe droughts episodically kill most pine recruits, thereby limiting the local range of this species.
Main conclusions
Persistent cloud shading can influence hydrology as much as fog drip in cloud‐affected ecosystems. Understanding the patterns of both cloud shading and fog drip and their respective impacts on ecosystem water budgets is necessary to fully understand past species range shifts and to anticipate future climate change‐induced range shifts in fog‐dependent ecosystems. Aim: Fog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare, drought-sensitive plant species are endemic to coastal areas where the dominant summer moisture source is fog. Low clouds that provide water to these semi-arid ecosystems through fog drip can also sharply reduce evaporative water losses by providing shade. We quantified the relative hydrological importance of cloud shading vs. fog drip. We then examined how both factors influence the range dynamics of an apparently fog-dependent plant species spanning a small-scale cloud gradient. Location: The study area is on Santa Cruz Island off the coast of southern California. It is near the southern range limit of bishop pine (Pinus muricata D. Don), a tree endemic to the coasts of California and Baja, Mexico. Methods: We measured climate across a pine stand along a 7 km, coastal-inland elevation transect. Short-term (1-5 years) monitoring and remote sensing data revealed strong climatic gradients driven primarily by cloud cover. Long-term (102 years) effects of these gradients were estimated using a water balance model. Results: We found that shade from persistent low clouds near the coast reduced annual drought stress by 22-40% compared with clearer conditions further inland. Fog drip at higher elevations provided sufficient extra water to reduce annual drought stress by 20-36%. Sites located at both high elevation and nearer the coast were subject to both effects. Together, these effects reduced average annual drought stress by 56% and dramatically reduced the frequency of severe drought over the last century. At lower elevation (without appreciable fog drip) and also near the inland edge of the stand (with less cloud shading) severe droughts episodically kill most pine recruits, thereby limiting the local range of this species. Main conclusions: Persistent cloud shading can influence hydrology as much as fog drip in cloud-affected ecosystems. Understanding the patterns of both cloud shading and fog drip and their respective impacts on ecosystem water budgets is necessary to fully understand past species range shifts and to anticipate future climate change-induced range shifts in fog-dependent ecosystems. Fog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare, drought-sensitive plant species are endemic to coastal areas where the dominant summer moisture source is fog. Low clouds that provide water to these semi-arid ecosystems through fog drip can also sharply reduce evaporative water losses by providing shade. We quantified the relative hydrological importance of cloud shading vs. fog drip. We then examined how both factors influence the range dynamics of an apparently fog-dependent plant species spanning a small-scale cloud gradient. The study area is on Santa Cruz Island off the coast of southern California. It is near the southern range limit of bishop pine (Pinus muricata D. Don), a tree endemic to the coasts of California and Baja, Mexico. We measured climate across a pine stand along a 7 km, coastal-inland elevation transect. Short-term (1-5 years) monitoring and remote sensing data revealed strong climatic gradients driven primarily by cloud cover. Long-term (102 years) effects of these gradients were estimated using a water balance model. We found that shade from persistent low clouds near the coast reduced annual drought stress by 22-40% compared with clearer conditions further inland. Fog drip at higher elevations provided sufficient extra water to reduce annual drought stress by 20-36%. Sites located at both high elevation and nearer the coast were subject to both effects. Together, these effects reduced average annual drought stress by 56% and dramatically reduced the frequency of severe drought over the last century. At lower elevation (without appreciable fog drip) and also near the inland edge of the stand (with less cloud shading) severe droughts episodically kill most pine recruits, thereby limiting the local range of this species. Persistent cloud shading can influence hydrology as much as fog drip in cloud-affected ecosystems. Understanding the patterns of both cloud shading and fog drip and their respective impacts on ecosystem water budgets is necessary to fully understand past species range shifts and to anticipate future climate change-induced range shifts in fog-dependent ecosystems. AbstractAimFog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare, drought-sensitive plant species are endemic to coastal areas where the dominant summer moisture source is fog. Low clouds that provide water to these semi-arid ecosystems through fog drip can also sharply reduce evaporative water losses by providing shade. We quantified the relative hydrological importance of cloud shading vs. fog drip. We then examined how both factors influence the range dynamics of an apparently fog-dependent plant species spanning a small-scale cloud gradient.LocationThe study area is on Santa Cruz Island off the coast of southern California. It is near the southern range limit of bishop pine (Pinus muricata D. Don), a tree endemic to the coasts of California and Baja, Mexico.MethodsWe measured climate across a pine stand along a 7km, coastal-inland elevation transect. Short-term (1-5years) monitoring and remote sensing data revealed strong climatic gradients driven primarily by cloud cover. Long-term (102years) effects of these gradients were estimated using a water balance model.ResultsWe found that shade from persistent low clouds near the coast reduced annual drought stress by 22-40% compared with clearer conditions further inland. Fog drip at higher elevations provided sufficient extra water to reduce annual drought stress by 20-36%. Sites located at both high elevation and nearer the coast were subject to both effects. Together, these effects reduced average annual drought stress by 56% and dramatically reduced the frequency of severe drought over the last century. At lower elevation (without appreciable fog drip) and also near the inland edge of the stand (with less cloud shading) severe droughts episodically kill most pine recruits, thereby limiting the local range of this species.Main conclusionsPersistent cloud shading can influence hydrology as much as fog drip in cloud-affected ecosystems. Understanding the patterns of both cloud shading and fog drip and their respective impacts on ecosystem water budgets is necessary to fully understand past species range shifts and to anticipate future climate change-induced range shifts in fog-dependent ecosystems. Aim Fog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare, drought‐sensitive plant species are endemic to coastal areas where the dominant summer moisture source is fog. Low clouds that provide water to these semi‐arid ecosystems through fog drip can also sharply reduce evaporative water losses by providing shade. We quantified the relative hydrological importance of cloud shading vs. fog drip. We then examined how both factors influence the range dynamics of an apparently fog‐dependent plant species spanning a small‐scale cloud gradient. Location The study area is on Santa Cruz Island off the coast of southern California. It is near the southern range limit of bishop pine (Pinus muricata D. Don), a tree endemic to the coasts of California and Baja, Mexico. Methods We measured climate across a pine stand along a 7 km, coastal–inland elevation transect. Short‐term (1–5 years) monitoring and remote sensing data revealed strong climatic gradients driven primarily by cloud cover. Long‐term (102 years) effects of these gradients were estimated using a water balance model. Results We found that shade from persistent low clouds near the coast reduced annual drought stress by 22–40% compared with clearer conditions further inland. Fog drip at higher elevations provided sufficient extra water to reduce annual drought stress by 20–36%. Sites located at both high elevation and nearer the coast were subject to both effects. Together, these effects reduced average annual drought stress by 56% and dramatically reduced the frequency of severe drought over the last century. At lower elevation (without appreciable fog drip) and also near the inland edge of the stand (with less cloud shading) severe droughts episodically kill most pine recruits, thereby limiting the local range of this species. Main conclusions Persistent cloud shading can influence hydrology as much as fog drip in cloud‐affected ecosystems. Understanding the patterns of both cloud shading and fog drip and their respective impacts on ecosystem water budgets is necessary to fully understand past species range shifts and to anticipate future climate change‐induced range shifts in fog‐dependent ecosystems. |
| Author | Fischer, Douglas T. Williams, A. Park Still, Christopher J. |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: Douglas T. surname: Fischer fullname: Fischer, Douglas T. email: doug.fischer@csun.edu organization: Geography Department, California State University Northridge, Northridge – sequence: 2 givenname: Christopher J. surname: Still fullname: Still, Christopher J. organization: Department of Geography – sequence: 3 givenname: A. Park surname: Williams fullname: Williams, A. Park organization: Department of Geography |
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| Publisher | Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing Blackwell |
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| References | Fischer, D.T. & Still, C.J. (2007) Evaluating patterns of fog water deposition and isotopic composition on the California Channel Islands. Water Resources Research, 43, W04420. Doi: DOI: 10.1029/2006WR005124. Lanner, R.L. (1999) Conifers of California. Cachuma Press, Los Olivos, CA. McGuirk, J.P. (1982) A century of precipitation variability along the Pacific coast of North America and its impact. Climatic Change, 4, 41-56. Dunne, T. & Leopold, L.B. (1978) Water in environmental planning. W.H. Freeman and Co., New York. White, A.B., Rich, P.M. & Pasqualini, D. (2006) Drought-induced tree mortality in piñon-juniper woodlands. EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 87. Fall Meeting Supplement, Abstract B43C-02. Knapp, A.K. & Smith, M.D. (2001) Variation among biomes in temporal dynamics of aboveground primary production. Science, 291, 481-484. Ruiz, G. (2005) Characterization of fog water collection potential and quality on California State University Monterey Bay and Glen Deven ranch near Big Sur. EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 86. Fall Meeting Supplement, Abstract A33B-0891. Still, C.J., Foster, P.N. & Schneider, S.H. (1999) Simulating the effects of climate change on tropical montane cloud forests. Nature, 398, 608-610. Leipper, D.F. (1994) Fog on the U.S. west coast: a review. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 75, 229-240. Snyder, M.A., Sloan, L.C., Diffenbaugh, N.S. & Bell, J.L. (2003) Future climate change and upwelling in the California current. Geophysical Research Letters, 30, 1823-1826. Laughrin, L. (2005) Santa Cruz Island rainfall record, 1904-2005. Santa Cruz Island Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System, Santa Barbara, CA. Burgess, S.S.O. & Dawson, T.E. (2004) The contribution of fog to the water relations of Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don): foliar uptake and prevention of dehydration. Plant Cell and Environment, 27, 1023-1034. Filonczuk, M.K., Cayan, D.R. & Riddle, L.G. (1995) Variability of marine fog along the California coast. Climate Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA. Ingraham, N.L. & Matthews, R.A. (1995) The importance of fog-drip water to vegetation - Point-Reyes Peninsula, California. Journal of Hydrology, 164, 269-285. Granier, A. & Loustau, D. (1994) Measuring and modelling the transpiration of a maritime pine canopy from sap-flow data. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 71, 61-81. Larcher, W. (2003) Plant physiological ecology. Springer, Berlin. Wall, J.B. (2005) Weather data, Santa Cruz Island, CA, 1995-2005. Department of Geography, California State University, Northridge, CA. Mason, H.L. (1934) Pleistocene flora of the Tomales formation. Studies of the Pleistocene palaeobotany of California, pp. 81-179. Carnegie Institution, Washington, DC. Snyder, R.L. & Eching, S. (2004) PMhrXLS: Penman-Monteith hourly ETref for short and tall canopies. University of California, Davis. Available at: http://biomet.ucdavis.edu/evapotranspiration.html (last accessed 22 October 2008). Kennedy, P.G. & Sousa, W.P. (2006) Forest encroachment into a Californian grassland: examining the simultaneous effects of facilitation and competition on tree seedling recruitment. Oecologia, 148, 464-474. Griffin, J.R. & Critchfield, W.B. (1972) The distribution of forest trees in California. Pacific SW Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service, Berkeley, CA. Dawson, T.E. (1998) Fog in the California Redwood forest: ecosystem inputs and use by plants. Oecologia, 117, 476-485. National Weather Service (2005) Santa Barbara temperature records. National Climatic Data Center, Boulder, CO. Jacobs, D.F., Cole, D.W. & McBride, J.R. (1985) Fire history and perpetuation of natural Coast Redwood ecosystems. Journal of Forestry, 83, 494-497. National Weather Service (2007) NWS Detroit/Pontiac weather glossary. Available at: http://www.crh.noaa.gov/dtx/glossary.php (last accessed 10 January 2007). Rundel, P.W., Dillon, M.O., Palma, B., Mooney, H.A., Gulmon, S.L. & Ehleringer, J.R. (1991) The phytogeography and ecology of the coastal Atacama and Peruvian deserts. Aliso, 13, 1-49. Thornthwaite, C.W. & Mather, J.R. (1955) The water balance. Laboratory of Climatology, Centerton, NJ. Marotz, G.A. & Lahey, J.F. (1975) Some stratus/fog statistics in contrasting coastal plant communities of California. Journal of Biogeography, 2, 289-295. Olson, D.M. & Dinerstein, E. (1998) The global 200: a representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions. Conservation Biology, 12, 502-515. Brouwer, C. & Heibloem, M. (1986) Irrigation water management: irrigation water needs. Agriculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/documents; last accessed 22 October 2008. Stephenson, N.L. (1998) Actual evapotranspiration and deficit: biologically meaningful correlates of vegetation distribution across spatial scales. Journal of Biogeography, 25, 855-870. Heusser, L. (1995) Pollen stratigraphy and paleoecologic interpretation of the 160-k.y. record from Santa Barbara Basin, hole 893a. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Santa Barbara Basin; covering Leg 146 of the cruises of the vessel JOIDES Resolution, Santa Barbara Channel, California, Site 893, 20 September-22 November 1992 (ed. by J.P. Kennett and L. Haskins). Texas A & M University, ODP Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX. Leyton, L. & Armitage, I.P. (1968) Cuticle structure and water relations of needles of Pinus radiata (D. Don). New Phytologist, 67, 31-38. Bakun, A. (1990) Global climate change and intensification of coastal ocean upwelling. Science, 247, 198-201. Williams, A.P., Still, C.J., Fischer, D.T. & Leavitt, S.L. (2008) The influence of summertime fog and overcast clouds on the growth of a coastal Californian pine: a tree-ring study. Oecologia, 156, 601-611. Mendelssohn, R. & Schwing, F.B. (2002) Common and uncommon trends in SST and wind stress in the California and Peru-Chile current systems. Progress in Oceanography, 53, 141-162. Azevedo, J. & Morgan, D.L. (1974) Fog precipitation in coastal California forests. Ecology, 55, 1135-1141. IPCC (2007) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change fourth assessment report. World Meteorological Organization, United Nations Environmental Program. Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/assessments-reports.htm (last accessed 10 December 2007). Corbin, J.D., Thomsen, M.A., Dawson, T.E. & D'Antonio, C.M. (2005) Summer water use by California coastal prairie grasses: fog, drought, and community composition. Oecologia, 145, 511-521. Haston, L. & Michaelsen, J. (1997) Spatial and temporal variability of southern California precipitation over the last 400 yr and relationships to atmospheric circulation patterns. Journal of Climate, 10, 1836-1852. Breshears, D.D., Cobb, N.S., Rich, P.M., Price, K.P., Allen, C.D., Balice, R.G., Romme, W.H., Kastens, J.H., Floyd, M.L. & Belnap, J. (2005) Regional vegetation die-off in response to global-change-type drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 102, 15144-15148. Michaelsen, J., Haston, L. & Davis, F.W. (1987) 400 years of central California precipitation variability reconstructed from tree rings. Water Resources Bulletin, 23, 809-818. Goodman, J. (1985) The collection of fog-drip. Water Resources Research, 21, 392-394. Millar, C.I. (1999) Evolution and biogeography of Pinus radiata, with a proposed revision of its Quaternary history. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 29, 335-365. Pounds, J.A., Fogden, M.P.L. & Campbell, J.H. (1999) Biological response to climate change on a tropical mountain. Nature, 398, 611-615. Millar, C.I. (1986) The Californian closed cone pines (subsection Oocarpae Little and Critchfield): a taxonomic history and review. Taxon, 35, 657-670. Raven, P.H. & Axelrod, D.I. (1978) Origin and relationships of the California flora. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Allen, R.G., Walter, I.A., Elliott, R. & Howell, T.A. (2005) The ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation. American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. McKenney, M.S. & Rosenberg, N.J. (1993) Sensitivity of some potential evapotranspiration estimation methods to climate change. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 64, 81-110. Schwing, F.B. & Mendelssohn, R. (1997) Increased coastal upwelling in the California current system. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102, 3421-3438. Thornthwaite, C.W. & Mather, J.R. (1957) Instructions and tables for computing potential evapotranspiration and the water balance. Laboratory of Climatology, Centerton, NJ. Schonher, T. & Nicholson, S.E. (1989) The relationship between California rainfall and ENSO events. Journal of Climate, 2, 1258-1269. Schulman, E. (1947) Tree-ring hydrology in southern California. Bulletin No. 4, Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ. Haston, L. & Michaelsen, J. (1994) Long-term central coastal California precipitation variability and relationships to El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Journal of Climate, 7, 1373-1387. Fischer, D.T., Smith, S.V. & Churchill, R.R. (1996) Simulation of a century of runoff across the Tomales watershed, Marin County, California. Journal of Hydrology, 186, 253-273. Costello, L.R., Matheny, N.P., Clark, J.R. & Jones, K.S. (2000) A guide to estimating irrigation water needs of landscape plantings in California. University of California Cooperative Extension, California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, CA. Pounds, J.A., Bustamante, M.R., Coloma, L.A., Consuegra, J.A., Fogden, M.P.L., Foster, P.N., La Marca, E., Masters, K.L., Merino-Viteri, A., Puschendorf, R., Ron, S.R., Sánchez-Azofeifa, G.A., Still, C.J. & Young, B.E. (2006) Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature, 439, 161-167. Richardson, D.M., ed. (1998) Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1968; 67 1974; 55 2002; 53 1991; 13 2004; 27 1986; 35 1993; 64 1930 1972 1998; 117 1996; 186 1985; 21 1978 1934 1933 1997; 102 2001 2000 1997; 10 2005; 145 2005; 102 2001; 291 1982; 4 1986 1975; 2 1980 1995; 164 2008; 156 1994; 71 1998; 12 1947 1994; 75 1989; 2 2006; 439 1990; 247 1999; 29 1998 2007 2005; 86 1995 2006 2005 2004 2003 1985; 83 1991 2003; 30 1957 1998; 25 1999 1955 1987; 23 2006; 87 1999; 398 2007; 43 2006; 148 1967 1994; 7 e_1_2_7_5_1 Millar C.I. (e_1_2_7_48_1) 1999; 29 White A.B. (e_1_2_7_70_1) 2006; 87 Hobbs E. (e_1_2_7_28_1) 1980 Wehtje W. (e_1_2_7_69_1) 1991 e_1_2_7_19_1 e_1_2_7_60_1 Laughrin L. (e_1_2_7_38_1) 2005 Schulman E. (e_1_2_7_59_1) 1947 e_1_2_7_62_1 Griffin J.R. (e_1_2_7_23_1) 1972 e_1_2_7_41_1 e_1_2_7_64_1 e_1_2_7_43_1 National Weather Service (e_1_2_7_49_1) 2005 e_1_2_7_45_1 e_1_2_7_47_1 e_1_2_7_26_1 Hamilton L.S. (e_1_2_7_24_1) 1995 Heusser L. (e_1_2_7_27_1) 1995 Estberg G. (e_1_2_7_16_1) 2001 Brouwer C. (e_1_2_7_7_1) 1986 Williams A.P. (e_1_2_7_71_1) 2006 Filonczuk M.K. (e_1_2_7_17_1) 1995 Ruiz G. (e_1_2_7_56_1) 2005; 86 Walter H.S. (e_1_2_7_68_1) 1999 Axelrod D.I. (e_1_2_7_3_1) 1967 e_1_2_7_25_1 e_1_2_7_52_1 e_1_2_7_54_1 e_1_2_7_21_1 e_1_2_7_35_1 e_1_2_7_37_1 e_1_2_7_58_1 Chaney R.W. (e_1_2_7_10_1) 1933 e_1_2_7_39_1 Hochberg M.C. (e_1_2_7_29_1) 1980 Fischer D.T. (e_1_2_7_18_1) 2007 Thornthwaite C.W. (e_1_2_7_65_1) 1955 e_1_2_7_6_1 Costello L.R. (e_1_2_7_13_1) 2000 e_1_2_7_4_1 e_1_2_7_8_1 Allen R.G. (e_1_2_7_2_1) 2005 Jacobs D.F. (e_1_2_7_32_1) 1985; 83 Kappelle M. (e_1_2_7_33_1) 2004 e_1_2_7_40_1 Mason H.L. (e_1_2_7_42_1) 1934 e_1_2_7_14_1 e_1_2_7_63_1 e_1_2_7_12_1 e_1_2_7_44_1 Dunne T. (e_1_2_7_15_1) 1978 e_1_2_7_46_1 Chaney R.W. (e_1_2_7_9_1) 1930 Cole E.S. (e_1_2_7_11_1) 2005 National Weather Service (e_1_2_7_50_1) 2007 e_1_2_7_72_1 Olson D.M. (e_1_2_7_51_1) 1998; 12 e_1_2_7_30_1 e_1_2_7_53_1 Lanner R.L. (e_1_2_7_36_1) 1999 e_1_2_7_22_1 e_1_2_7_34_1 e_1_2_7_57_1 Snyder R.L. (e_1_2_7_61_1) 2004 IPCC (e_1_2_7_31_1) 2007 e_1_2_7_20_1 Wall J.B. (e_1_2_7_67_1) 2005 Thornthwaite C.W. (e_1_2_7_66_1) 1957 Richardson D.M. (e_1_2_7_55_1) 1998 |
| References_xml | – reference: Burgess, S.S.O. & Dawson, T.E. (2004) The contribution of fog to the water relations of Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don): foliar uptake and prevention of dehydration. Plant Cell and Environment, 27, 1023-1034. – reference: Schulman, E. (1947) Tree-ring hydrology in southern California. Bulletin No. 4, Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ. – reference: White, A.B., Rich, P.M. & Pasqualini, D. (2006) Drought-induced tree mortality in piñon-juniper woodlands. EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 87. Fall Meeting Supplement, Abstract B43C-02. – reference: Knapp, A.K. & Smith, M.D. (2001) Variation among biomes in temporal dynamics of aboveground primary production. Science, 291, 481-484. – reference: Thornthwaite, C.W. & Mather, J.R. (1955) The water balance. Laboratory of Climatology, Centerton, NJ. – reference: Haston, L. & Michaelsen, J. (1997) Spatial and temporal variability of southern California precipitation over the last 400 yr and relationships to atmospheric circulation patterns. Journal of Climate, 10, 1836-1852. – reference: Snyder, M.A., Sloan, L.C., Diffenbaugh, N.S. & Bell, J.L. (2003) Future climate change and upwelling in the California current. Geophysical Research Letters, 30, 1823-1826. – reference: IPCC (2007) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change fourth assessment report. World Meteorological Organization, United Nations Environmental Program. Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/assessments-reports.htm (last accessed 10 December 2007). – reference: Costello, L.R., Matheny, N.P., Clark, J.R. & Jones, K.S. (2000) A guide to estimating irrigation water needs of landscape plantings in California. University of California Cooperative Extension, California Department of Water Resources, Sacramento, CA. – reference: Marotz, G.A. & Lahey, J.F. (1975) Some stratus/fog statistics in contrasting coastal plant communities of California. Journal of Biogeography, 2, 289-295. – reference: Rundel, P.W., Dillon, M.O., Palma, B., Mooney, H.A., Gulmon, S.L. & Ehleringer, J.R. (1991) The phytogeography and ecology of the coastal Atacama and Peruvian deserts. Aliso, 13, 1-49. – reference: Millar, C.I. (1999) Evolution and biogeography of Pinus radiata, with a proposed revision of its Quaternary history. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 29, 335-365. – reference: Millar, C.I. (1986) The Californian closed cone pines (subsection Oocarpae Little and Critchfield): a taxonomic history and review. Taxon, 35, 657-670. – reference: Williams, A.P., Still, C.J., Fischer, D.T. & Leavitt, S.L. (2008) The influence of summertime fog and overcast clouds on the growth of a coastal Californian pine: a tree-ring study. Oecologia, 156, 601-611. – reference: Jacobs, D.F., Cole, D.W. & McBride, J.R. (1985) Fire history and perpetuation of natural Coast Redwood ecosystems. Journal of Forestry, 83, 494-497. – reference: Larcher, W. (2003) Plant physiological ecology. Springer, Berlin. – reference: Snyder, R.L. & Eching, S. (2004) PMhrXLS: Penman-Monteith hourly ETref for short and tall canopies. University of California, Davis. Available at: http://biomet.ucdavis.edu/evapotranspiration.html (last accessed 22 October 2008). – reference: Kennedy, P.G. & Sousa, W.P. (2006) Forest encroachment into a Californian grassland: examining the simultaneous effects of facilitation and competition on tree seedling recruitment. Oecologia, 148, 464-474. – reference: Bakun, A. (1990) Global climate change and intensification of coastal ocean upwelling. Science, 247, 198-201. – reference: Dawson, T.E. (1998) Fog in the California Redwood forest: ecosystem inputs and use by plants. Oecologia, 117, 476-485. – reference: Haston, L. & Michaelsen, J. (1994) Long-term central coastal California precipitation variability and relationships to El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Journal of Climate, 7, 1373-1387. – reference: Ruiz, G. (2005) Characterization of fog water collection potential and quality on California State University Monterey Bay and Glen Deven ranch near Big Sur. EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 86. Fall Meeting Supplement, Abstract A33B-0891. – reference: Laughrin, L. (2005) Santa Cruz Island rainfall record, 1904-2005. Santa Cruz Island Reserve, UC Natural Reserve System, Santa Barbara, CA. – reference: Schonher, T. & Nicholson, S.E. (1989) The relationship between California rainfall and ENSO events. Journal of Climate, 2, 1258-1269. – reference: Griffin, J.R. & Critchfield, W.B. (1972) The distribution of forest trees in California. Pacific SW Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service, Berkeley, CA. – reference: Dunne, T. & Leopold, L.B. (1978) Water in environmental planning. W.H. Freeman and Co., New York. – reference: Pounds, J.A., Fogden, M.P.L. & Campbell, J.H. (1999) Biological response to climate change on a tropical mountain. Nature, 398, 611-615. – reference: Stephenson, N.L. (1998) Actual evapotranspiration and deficit: biologically meaningful correlates of vegetation distribution across spatial scales. Journal of Biogeography, 25, 855-870. – reference: Leyton, L. & Armitage, I.P. (1968) Cuticle structure and water relations of needles of Pinus radiata (D. Don). New Phytologist, 67, 31-38. – reference: Thornthwaite, C.W. & Mather, J.R. (1957) Instructions and tables for computing potential evapotranspiration and the water balance. Laboratory of Climatology, Centerton, NJ. – reference: National Weather Service (2005) Santa Barbara temperature records. National Climatic Data Center, Boulder, CO. – reference: Richardson, D.M., ed. (1998) Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. – reference: McGuirk, J.P. (1982) A century of precipitation variability along the Pacific coast of North America and its impact. Climatic Change, 4, 41-56. – reference: Allen, R.G., Walter, I.A., Elliott, R. & Howell, T.A. (2005) The ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation. American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA. – reference: Breshears, D.D., Cobb, N.S., Rich, P.M., Price, K.P., Allen, C.D., Balice, R.G., Romme, W.H., Kastens, J.H., Floyd, M.L. & Belnap, J. (2005) Regional vegetation die-off in response to global-change-type drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 102, 15144-15148. – reference: Michaelsen, J., Haston, L. & Davis, F.W. (1987) 400 years of central California precipitation variability reconstructed from tree rings. Water Resources Bulletin, 23, 809-818. – reference: Filonczuk, M.K., Cayan, D.R. & Riddle, L.G. (1995) Variability of marine fog along the California coast. Climate Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA. – reference: Fischer, D.T., Smith, S.V. & Churchill, R.R. (1996) Simulation of a century of runoff across the Tomales watershed, Marin County, California. Journal of Hydrology, 186, 253-273. – reference: Brouwer, C. & Heibloem, M. (1986) Irrigation water management: irrigation water needs. Agriculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/documents; last accessed 22 October 2008. – reference: Schwing, F.B. & Mendelssohn, R. (1997) Increased coastal upwelling in the California current system. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102, 3421-3438. – reference: Goodman, J. (1985) The collection of fog-drip. Water Resources Research, 21, 392-394. – reference: Heusser, L. (1995) Pollen stratigraphy and paleoecologic interpretation of the 160-k.y. record from Santa Barbara Basin, hole 893a. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Santa Barbara Basin; covering Leg 146 of the cruises of the vessel JOIDES Resolution, Santa Barbara Channel, California, Site 893, 20 September-22 November 1992 (ed. by J.P. Kennett and L. Haskins). Texas A & M University, ODP Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX. – reference: McKenney, M.S. & Rosenberg, N.J. (1993) Sensitivity of some potential evapotranspiration estimation methods to climate change. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 64, 81-110. – reference: Mendelssohn, R. & Schwing, F.B. (2002) Common and uncommon trends in SST and wind stress in the California and Peru-Chile current systems. Progress in Oceanography, 53, 141-162. – reference: Granier, A. & Loustau, D. (1994) Measuring and modelling the transpiration of a maritime pine canopy from sap-flow data. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 71, 61-81. – reference: Pounds, J.A., Bustamante, M.R., Coloma, L.A., Consuegra, J.A., Fogden, M.P.L., Foster, P.N., La Marca, E., Masters, K.L., Merino-Viteri, A., Puschendorf, R., Ron, S.R., Sánchez-Azofeifa, G.A., Still, C.J. & Young, B.E. (2006) Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature, 439, 161-167. – reference: Olson, D.M. & Dinerstein, E. (1998) The global 200: a representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions. Conservation Biology, 12, 502-515. – reference: Wall, J.B. (2005) Weather data, Santa Cruz Island, CA, 1995-2005. Department of Geography, California State University, Northridge, CA. – reference: Azevedo, J. & Morgan, D.L. (1974) Fog precipitation in coastal California forests. Ecology, 55, 1135-1141. – reference: Fischer, D.T. & Still, C.J. (2007) Evaluating patterns of fog water deposition and isotopic composition on the California Channel Islands. Water Resources Research, 43, W04420. Doi: DOI: 10.1029/2006WR005124. – reference: National Weather Service (2007) NWS Detroit/Pontiac weather glossary. Available at: http://www.crh.noaa.gov/dtx/glossary.php (last accessed 10 January 2007). – reference: Still, C.J., Foster, P.N. & Schneider, S.H. (1999) Simulating the effects of climate change on tropical montane cloud forests. Nature, 398, 608-610. – reference: Leipper, D.F. (1994) Fog on the U.S. west coast: a review. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 75, 229-240. – reference: Lanner, R.L. (1999) Conifers of California. Cachuma Press, Los Olivos, CA. – reference: Corbin, J.D., Thomsen, M.A., Dawson, T.E. & D'Antonio, C.M. (2005) Summer water use by California coastal prairie grasses: fog, drought, and community composition. Oecologia, 145, 511-521. – reference: Ingraham, N.L. & Matthews, R.A. (1995) The importance of fog-drip water to vegetation - Point-Reyes Peninsula, California. Journal of Hydrology, 164, 269-285. – reference: Raven, P.H. & Axelrod, D.I. (1978) Origin and relationships of the California flora. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. – reference: Mason, H.L. (1934) Pleistocene flora of the Tomales formation. Studies of the Pleistocene palaeobotany of California, pp. 81-179. Carnegie Institution, Washington, DC. – volume: 21 start-page: 392 year: 1985 end-page: 394 article-title: The collection of fog‐drip publication-title: Water Resources Research – volume: 67 start-page: 31 year: 1968 end-page: 38 article-title: Cuticle structure and water relations of needles of (D. 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| Snippet | Aim: Fog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare,... Aim Fog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare,... Aim Fog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare,... AbstractAimFog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare,... Fog drip is a crucial water source for plants in many ecosystems, including a number of global biodiversity hotspots. In California, dozens of rare,... |
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| SubjectTerms | Animal and plant ecology Animal, plant and microbial ecology biodiversity Biogeography Biological and medical sciences California Channel Islands climate Climate change Cloud cover cloud shading Clouds coasts Drought drought stress ecological function ecosystems environmental impact evapotranspiration Fog Fundamental and applied biological sciences. Psychology General aspects indigenous species Mexico monitoring Pinus muricata Rain range limits Santa Cruz Island shade Soil water spatial data Stratus clouds summer Synecology Water balance Water Limitation water stress |
| Title | Significance of summer fog and overcast for drought stress and ecological functioning of coastal California endemic plant species |
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