Red Media, Blue Media: Evidence of Ideological Selectivity in Media Use
We show that the demand for news varies with the perceived affinity of the news organization to the consumer’s political preferences. In an experimental setting, conservatives and Republicans preferred to read news reports attributed to Fox News and to avoid news from CNN and NPR. Democrats and libe...
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| Published in | Journal of communication Vol. 59; no. 1; pp. 19 - 39 |
|---|---|
| Main Authors | , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
Malden, USA
Blackwell Publishing Inc
01.03.2009
Wiley Oxford University Press |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
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| Abstract | We show that the demand for news varies with the perceived affinity of the news organization to the consumer’s political preferences. In an experimental setting, conservatives and Republicans preferred to read news reports attributed to Fox News and to avoid news from CNN and NPR. Democrats and liberals exhibited exactly the opposite syndrome—dividing their attention equally between CNN and NPR, but avoiding Fox News. This pattern of selective exposure based on partisan affinity held not only for news coverage of controversial issues but also for relatively “soft” subjects such as crime and travel. The tendency to select news based on anticipated agreement was also strengthened among more politically engaged partisans. Overall, these results suggest that the further proliferation of new media and enhanced media choices may contribute to the further polarization of the news audience.
Resumen
Los Medios Rojos, los Medios Azules: La Evidencia de la Selectividad Ideológica en el Uso de los Medios
Mostramos que la demanda de noticias varía con la percepción de la afinidad con las organizaciones de noticias en las preferencias políticas del consumidor. En un ambiente experimental, conservadores y Republicanos prefirieron leer reportes de noticias atribuidos a la cadena de noticias Fox y evitaron las noticias de CNN y NPR. Los Demócratas y liberales exhibieron el síndrome exactamente opuesto – dividiendo su atención igualmente entre CNN y NPR, pero evitando las noticias de la cadena Fox. Esta pauta selectiva de exposición basada en la afinidad partidaria es sostenida no solo con respecto a la cobertura de noticias de hechos controversiales, sino también con respecto a materias relativamente “blandas” tales como el crimen y el viaje. La tendencia a seleccionar noticias basadas en un acuerdo anticipado fue aumentada también entre los partidarios políticamente más comprometidos. En general, los resultados sugieren que la mayor proliferación de los nuevos medios y las opciones mejoradas de los medios pueden contribuir a una mayor polarización de las audiencias de noticias.
ZhaiYao
Yo yak |
|---|---|
| AbstractList | We show that the demand for news varies with the perceived affinity of the news organization to the consumer's political preferences. In an experimental setting, conservatives and Republicans preferred to read news reports attributed to Fox News and to avoid news from CNN and NPR. Democrats and liberals exhibited exactly the opposite syndrome - dividing their attention equally between CNN and NPR, but avoiding Fox News. This pattern of selective exposure based on partisan affinity held not only for news coverage of controversial issues but also for relatively "soft" subjects such as crime and travel. The tendency to select news based on anticipated agreement was also strengthened among more politically engaged partisans. Overall, these results suggest that the further proliferation of new media and enhanced media choices may contribute to the further polarization of the news audience. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT] We show that the demand for news varies with the perceived affinity of the news organization to the consumer's political preferences. In an experimental setting, conservatives and Republicans preferred to read news reports attributed to Fox News and to avoid news from CNN and NPR. Democrats and liberals exhibited exactly the opposite syndrome-dividing their attention equally between CNN and NPR, but avoiding Fox News. This pattern of selective exposure based on partisan affinity held not only for news coverage of controversial issues but also for relatively 'soft' subjects such as crime and travel. The tendency to select news based on anticipated agreement was also strengthened among more politically engaged partisans. Overall, these results suggest that the further proliferation of new media and enhanced media choices may contribute to the further polarization of the news audience. Reprinted by permission of Blackwell Publishers We show that the demand for news varies with the perceived affinity of the news organization to the consumer’s political preferences. In an experimental setting, conservatives and Republicans preferred to read news reports attributed to Fox News and to avoid news from CNN and NPR. Democrats and liberals exhibited exactly the opposite syndrome—dividing their attention equally between CNN and NPR, but avoiding Fox News. This pattern of selective exposure based on partisan affinity held not only for news coverage of controversial issues but also for relatively “soft” subjects such as crime and travel. The tendency to select news based on anticipated agreement was also strengthened among more politically engaged partisans. Overall, these results suggest that the further proliferation of new media and enhanced media choices may contribute to the further polarization of the news audience. Resumen Los Medios Rojos, los Medios Azules: La Evidencia de la Selectividad Ideológica en el Uso de los Medios Mostramos que la demanda de noticias varía con la percepción de la afinidad con las organizaciones de noticias en las preferencias políticas del consumidor. En un ambiente experimental, conservadores y Republicanos prefirieron leer reportes de noticias atribuidos a la cadena de noticias Fox y evitaron las noticias de CNN y NPR. Los Demócratas y liberales exhibieron el síndrome exactamente opuesto – dividiendo su atención igualmente entre CNN y NPR, pero evitando las noticias de la cadena Fox. Esta pauta selectiva de exposición basada en la afinidad partidaria es sostenida no solo con respecto a la cobertura de noticias de hechos controversiales, sino también con respecto a materias relativamente “blandas” tales como el crimen y el viaje. La tendencia a seleccionar noticias basadas en un acuerdo anticipado fue aumentada también entre los partidarios políticamente más comprometidos. En general, los resultados sugieren que la mayor proliferación de los nuevos medios y las opciones mejoradas de los medios pueden contribuir a una mayor polarización de las audiencias de noticias. ZhaiYao Yo yak We show that the demand for news varies with the perceived affinity of the news organization to the consumer's political preferences. In an experimental setting, conservatives and Republicans preferred to read news reports attributed to Fox News and to avoid news from CNN and NPR. Democrats and liberals exhibited exactly the opposite syndrome-dividing their attention equally between CNN and NPR, but avoiding Fox News. This pattern of selective exposure based on partisan affinity held not only for news coverage of controversial issues but also for relatively 'soft'subjects such as crime and travel. The tendency to select news based on anticipated agreement was also strengthened among more politically engaged partisans. Overall, these results suggest that the further proliferation of new media and enhanced media choices may contribute to the further polarization of the news audience. ResumenLos Medios Rojos, los Medios Azules: La Evidencia de la Selectividad Ideologica en el Uso de los MediosMostramos que la demanda de noticias varia con la percepcion de la afinidad con las organizaciones de noticias en las preferencias politicas del consumidor. En un ambiente experimental, conservadores y Republicanos prefirieron leer reportes de noticias atribuidos a la cadena de noticias Fox y evitaron las noticias de CNN y NPR. Los Democratas y liberales exhibieron el sindrome exactamente opuesto - dividiendo su atencion igualmente entre CNN y NPR, pero evitando las noticias de la cadena Fox. Esta pauta selectiva de exposicion basada en la afinidad partidaria es sostenida no solo con respecto a la cobertura de noticias de hechos controversiales, sino tambien con respecto a materias relativamente 'blandas'tales como el crimen y el viaje. La tendencia a seleccionar noticias basadas en un acuerdo anticipado fue aumentada tambien entre los partidarios politicamente mas comprometidos. En general, los resultados sugieren que la mayor proliferacion de los nuevos medios y las opciones mejoradas de los medios pueden contribuir a una mayor polarizacion de las audiencias de noticias. ZhaiYao Yo yak |
| Author | Hahn, Kyu S Iyengar, Shanto |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: Shanto surname: Iyengar fullname: Iyengar, Shanto organization: Department of Communication, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-2050 – sequence: 2 givenname: Kyu S surname: Hahn fullname: Hahn, Kyu S email: khahn@yonsei.ac.kr organization: Underwood International College,Yonsei University, Seoul, 120-749, Korea |
| BackLink | http://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=21506952$$DView record in Pascal Francis |
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| Issue | 1 |
| Keywords | Political attitude Preference News |
| Language | English |
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| PublicationDate | March 2009 |
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| PublicationPlace | Malden, USA |
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| PublicationTitle | Journal of communication |
| PublicationYear | 2009 |
| Publisher | Blackwell Publishing Inc Wiley Oxford University Press |
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| References | Agresti, A. (1996). An introduction to categorical data analysis. New York: Wiley. Rutenberg, J., Thompson, M. W., & Kirkpatrick, D. D. (2008, February 21). For McCain, self-confidence on ethics poses its own risk. The New York Times, p. A1. Bumiller, E. (2008, February 23). McCain gathers support and donations in aftermath of article in The Times. The New York Times, p. A13. Allen, M., & D'Alissio, D. (2000). Media bias in presidential elections: A meta-analysis. Journal of Communication, 50, 133-156. Lau, R. R., & Redlawsk, D. P. (2006). How voters decide: Information processing in election campaigns. New York: Cambridge University Press. Abramowitz, A. I., & Saunders, K. L. (2006). Exploring the bases of partisanship in the American electorate: Social identity vs. ideology. Political Research Quarterly, 59, 175-187. Groseclose, T., & Milyo, J. (2005). A measure of media bias. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 120, 1191-1237. Adams, J., & Merrill, S., III. (2000). Spatial models of candidate competition and the 1988 French presidential election: Are presidential candidates vote-maximizers? Journal of Politics, 62, 729-756. Lazarsfeld, P. F., Berelson, B. R., & Gaudet, H. (1948). The people's choice. New York: Columbia University Press. McCloskey, H., Hoffman, P. J., & O'Hara, R. (1960). Issue conflict and consensus among party leaders and followers. American Political Science Review, 44, 406-427. Berry, S. T. (1994). Estimating discrete-choice models of product differentiation. RAND Journal of Economics, 25, 242-262. Maddala, G. S. (1983). Limited-dependent and qualitative variables in econometrics. New York: Cambridge University Press. McFadden, D. (1974). The measurement of urban travel demand. Journal of Public Economics, 26, 303-328. Jonas, E., Schulz-Hardt, S., Frey, D., & Thelen, N. (2001). Confirmation bias in sequential information search after preliminary decisions: An expansion of dissonance theoretical research on 'selective exposure to information'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 557-571. Gentzkow, M., & Shapiro, J. M. (2006). Media bias and reputation. Journal of Political Economy, 114, 280-316. Pew Research Center for the People and Press. (2004). Online news audience larger, more diverse: News audience increasingly polarized. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for the People and Press. Vallone, R. P., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1985). The hostile media phenomenon: Biased perception and perceptions of media bias in coverage of the "Beirut Massacre." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 577-585. Pfau, M. J., Houston, B., & Semmler, S. M. (2007). Mediating the vote: The changing media landscape in U.S. presidential campaigns. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Hill, S., Lo, J., Vavreck, L., & Zaller, J. (2007). The opt-in internet panel: Survey mode, sampling methodology and the implications for political research. Unpublished manuscript at the University of California, Los Angeles, California. Jacobson, G. C. (2006). A divider, not a uniter: George W. Bush and the American people. New York: Pearson. Parente, S. T., Feldman, R., & Christianson, J. B. (2004). Employee choice of consumer-driven health insurance in a multi plan, multi product setting. Health Service Research, 39, 1091-1112. Klapper, J. T. (1964). The effects of mass communication. New York: Free Press. Meffert, M. F., Chung, S., Joiner, A. J., Waks, L., & Garst, J. (2006). The effects of negativity and motivated information processing during a political campaign. Journal of Communication, 56, 27-51. Steinberg, J. (2007, November 6). Cable channel nods to ratings and leans left. The New York Times, p. A1. Mutz, D. C., & Martin, P. S. (2001). Facilitating communication across lines of political difference: The role of the mass media. American Political Science Review, 95, 97-114. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Logan, J. A. (1996). Opportunity and choice in socially structured labor markets. American Journal of Sociology, 102, 114-160. Greene, W. H. (2003). Econometric analysis (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Dow, J. K., & Endersby, J. W. (2004). Multinomial probit and multinomial logit: A comparison of choice models for voting research. Electoral Studies, 23, 107-122. Lehmann, E. L. (1959). Testing statistical hypothesis. New York: Wiley. Abramowitz, A. I., Alexander, B., & Gunning, M. (2006). Incumbency, redistricting, and the decline of competition in U.S. House elections. Journal of Politics, 68, 75-88. Long, J. S. (1997). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Gunther, A. C., Christen, C. T., Liebhart, J. L., & Chia, S. C. -Y. (2001). Congenial public, contrary press, and biased estimates of the climate of opinion. Public Opinion Quarterly, 65, 295-320. Fiorina, M. P., Abrams, S. J., & Pope, J. C. (2005). Culture wars? The myth of polarized America. New York: Pearson Longman. Alvarez, R. M., & Nagler, J. (1996). When politics and models collide: Estimating models of multiparty elections. American Journal of Political Science, 42, 55-96. Hoffman, S. D., & Duncan, G. J. (1988). Multinomial and conditional logit discrete-choice models in demography. Demography, 25, 415-427. Layman, G. C., & Carsey, T. M. (2002). Party polarization and 'conflict extension' in the American electorate. American Journal of Political Science, 46, 786-802. Malhotra, N., & Krosnick, J. (2007). The effect of survey mode and sampling on inferences about political attitudes and behavior: Comparing the 2000 and 2004 ANES to internet surveys with non probability samples. Political Analysis, 15, 286-323. Kull, S., Ramsay, C., & Lewis, E. (2003). Misperceptions, the media, and the Iraq war. Political Science Quarterly, 118, 569-598. Smith, T. J., III, Lichter, S. R., & Harris, T. (1997). What the people want from the press. Washington, DC: Center for Media and Public Affairs. Stempel, G. H. (1961). Selectivity in readership of political news. Public Opinion Quarterly, 25, 400-404. Mullainathan, S., & Schleifer, A. (2005). The market for news. American Economic Review, 95, 1031-1053. Agresti, A. (1990). Categorical data analysis. New York: Wiley. Fox, J. (1997). Applied regression, linear models, and related methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Schramm, W., & Carter, R. F. (1959). Effectiveness of a political telethon. Public Opinion Quarterly, 23, 121-26. Groeling, T., & Baum, M. A. (2007, August). Barbarians inside the gates: Partisan news media and the polarization of American political discourse. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL. Bartlett, D. L., Drew, P. B., Fahle, E. G., & Watts, W. A. (1974). Selective exposure to a presidential campaign appeal. Public Opinion Quarterly, 38, 264-270. Polsby, N. W. (1983). Consequences of party reform. New York: Oxford University Press. Cutler, F. (2004). The simplest shortcut of all: Sociodemographic characteristics and electoral choice. Journal of Politics, 64, 466-490. Sears, D. O., & Freedman, J. F. (1967). Selective exposure to information: A critical review. Public Opinion Quarterly, 31, 194-213. Iyengar, S., & McGrady, J. (2007). Media and politics: A citizen's guide. New York: W.W. Norton. Sweeney, P. D., & Gruber, K. L. (1984). Selective exposure: Voter information, preferences, and the Watergate affair. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1208-1221. Chaffee, S. H., & Miyo, Y. (1983). Selective exposure and the reinforcement hypothesis: An intergenerational panel study of the 1980 presidential campaign. Communication Research, 10, 3-36. Martin, L. W., & Stevenson, R. T. (2001). Government formation in parliamentary democracies. American Journal of Political Science, 45, 33-50. 2004; 64 2003; 118 2004; 23 2000; 50 1983; 10 1994; 25 2001; 45 1996; 102 2007, November 6 1959; 23 1960; 44 1990 2001 2006; 68 2000 2004; 39 2002; 46 2000; 62 1985 1983 1948 2001; 95 1974; 38 2008, February 21 2008, February 23 2007, August 2006; 56 2006; 59 1984; 46 1997 1996 2007 1986; 19 2006 2005 2004 2003 1959 1957 1985; 49 2006; 114 2007; 15 2001; 65 2001; 80 1974; 26 2005; 120 1967; 31 1988; 25 2005; 95 1964 1961; 25 1996; 42 1968 Polsby (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB50) 1983 Agresti (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB5) 1996 Alvarez (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB7) 1996; 42 Vallone (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB62) 1985; 49 Stempel (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB58) 1961; 25 Fox (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB17) 1997 Abramowitz (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB1) 2006; 68 Gunther (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB23) 2001; 65 Cotton (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB12) 1985 Lazarsfeld (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB34) 1948 Mullainathan (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB45) 2005; 95 Rutenberg (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB52) 200821 Jonas (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB29) 2001; 80 Martin (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB40) 2001; 45 Festinger (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB15) 1957 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB60 Stone (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB59) 1990 Allen (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB6) 2000; 50 Jacobson (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB27) 2000 Smith (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB56) 1997 Logan (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB36) 1996; 102 Pfau (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB49) 2007 Bartlett (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB8) 1974; 38 Lau (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB32) 2006 McCloskey (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB41) 1960; 44 Steinberg (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB57) 20076 Malhotra (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB39) 2007; 15 Kull (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB31) 2003; 118 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB51 Sweeney (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB61) 1984; 46 Cutler (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB13) 2004; 64 Hill (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB24) 2007 Pew Research Center for the People and Press (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB48) 2004 McGuire (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB43) 1968 Groeling (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB21) 2007 Schramm (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB53) 1959; 23 Greene (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB20) 2003 Abramowitz (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB2) 2006; 59 McFadden (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB42) 1974; 26 Dow (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB14) 2004; 23 Sears (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB54) 1968 Maddala (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB38) 1983 Long (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB37) 1997 Gentzkow (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB19) 2006; 114 Frey (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB18) 1986 Klapper (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB30) 1964 Agresti (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB4) 1990 Berry (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB9) 1994; 25 Meffert (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB44) 2006; 56 Hoffman (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB25) 1988; 25 Mutz (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB46) 2001; 95 Sears (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB55) 1967; 31 Layman (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB33) 2002; 46 Parente (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB47) 2004; 39 Groseclose (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB22) 2005; 120 Lehmann (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB35) 1959 Iyengar (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB26) 2007 Adams (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB3) 2000; 62 Chaffee (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB11) 1983; 10 Jacobson (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB28) 2006 Fiorina (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB16) 2005 Bumiller (10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x-BIB10) 200823 |
| References_xml | – reference: Logan, J. A. (1996). Opportunity and choice in socially structured labor markets. American Journal of Sociology, 102, 114-160. – reference: Lehmann, E. L. (1959). Testing statistical hypothesis. New York: Wiley. – reference: Sears, D. O., & Freedman, J. F. (1967). Selective exposure to information: A critical review. Public Opinion Quarterly, 31, 194-213. – reference: Greene, W. H. (2003). Econometric analysis (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. – reference: Martin, L. W., & Stevenson, R. T. (2001). Government formation in parliamentary democracies. American Journal of Political Science, 45, 33-50. – reference: Abramowitz, A. I., & Saunders, K. L. (2006). Exploring the bases of partisanship in the American electorate: Social identity vs. ideology. Political Research Quarterly, 59, 175-187. – reference: Dow, J. K., & Endersby, J. W. (2004). Multinomial probit and multinomial logit: A comparison of choice models for voting research. Electoral Studies, 23, 107-122. – reference: Groeling, T., & Baum, M. A. (2007, August). Barbarians inside the gates: Partisan news media and the polarization of American political discourse. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL. – reference: Polsby, N. W. (1983). Consequences of party reform. New York: Oxford University Press. – reference: Chaffee, S. H., & Miyo, Y. (1983). Selective exposure and the reinforcement hypothesis: An intergenerational panel study of the 1980 presidential campaign. Communication Research, 10, 3-36. – reference: Agresti, A. (1990). Categorical data analysis. New York: Wiley. – reference: Jonas, E., Schulz-Hardt, S., Frey, D., & Thelen, N. (2001). Confirmation bias in sequential information search after preliminary decisions: An expansion of dissonance theoretical research on 'selective exposure to information'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 557-571. – reference: Maddala, G. S. (1983). Limited-dependent and qualitative variables in econometrics. New York: Cambridge University Press. – reference: Hill, S., Lo, J., Vavreck, L., & Zaller, J. (2007). The opt-in internet panel: Survey mode, sampling methodology and the implications for political research. Unpublished manuscript at the University of California, Los Angeles, California. – reference: Jacobson, G. C. (2006). A divider, not a uniter: George W. Bush and the American people. New York: Pearson. – reference: Mutz, D. C., & Martin, P. S. (2001). Facilitating communication across lines of political difference: The role of the mass media. American Political Science Review, 95, 97-114. – reference: Bumiller, E. (2008, February 23). McCain gathers support and donations in aftermath of article in The Times. The New York Times, p. A13. – reference: Steinberg, J. (2007, November 6). Cable channel nods to ratings and leans left. The New York Times, p. A1. – reference: Hoffman, S. D., & Duncan, G. J. (1988). Multinomial and conditional logit discrete-choice models in demography. Demography, 25, 415-427. – reference: Berry, S. T. (1994). Estimating discrete-choice models of product differentiation. RAND Journal of Economics, 25, 242-262. – reference: Vallone, R. P., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1985). The hostile media phenomenon: Biased perception and perceptions of media bias in coverage of the "Beirut Massacre." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 577-585. – reference: Lazarsfeld, P. F., Berelson, B. R., & Gaudet, H. (1948). The people's choice. New York: Columbia University Press. – reference: Parente, S. T., Feldman, R., & Christianson, J. B. (2004). Employee choice of consumer-driven health insurance in a multi plan, multi product setting. Health Service Research, 39, 1091-1112. – reference: Smith, T. J., III, Lichter, S. R., & Harris, T. (1997). What the people want from the press. Washington, DC: Center for Media and Public Affairs. – reference: Sweeney, P. D., & Gruber, K. L. (1984). Selective exposure: Voter information, preferences, and the Watergate affair. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1208-1221. – reference: Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. – reference: Groseclose, T., & Milyo, J. (2005). A measure of media bias. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 120, 1191-1237. – reference: Lau, R. R., & Redlawsk, D. P. (2006). How voters decide: Information processing in election campaigns. New York: Cambridge University Press. – reference: Bartlett, D. L., Drew, P. B., Fahle, E. G., & Watts, W. A. (1974). Selective exposure to a presidential campaign appeal. Public Opinion Quarterly, 38, 264-270. – reference: Meffert, M. F., Chung, S., Joiner, A. J., Waks, L., & Garst, J. (2006). The effects of negativity and motivated information processing during a political campaign. Journal of Communication, 56, 27-51. – reference: McCloskey, H., Hoffman, P. J., & O'Hara, R. (1960). Issue conflict and consensus among party leaders and followers. American Political Science Review, 44, 406-427. – reference: Layman, G. C., & Carsey, T. M. (2002). Party polarization and 'conflict extension' in the American electorate. American Journal of Political Science, 46, 786-802. – reference: Abramowitz, A. I., Alexander, B., & Gunning, M. (2006). Incumbency, redistricting, and the decline of competition in U.S. House elections. Journal of Politics, 68, 75-88. – reference: Allen, M., & D'Alissio, D. (2000). Media bias in presidential elections: A meta-analysis. Journal of Communication, 50, 133-156. – reference: Malhotra, N., & Krosnick, J. (2007). The effect of survey mode and sampling on inferences about political attitudes and behavior: Comparing the 2000 and 2004 ANES to internet surveys with non probability samples. Political Analysis, 15, 286-323. – reference: Pfau, M. J., Houston, B., & Semmler, S. M. (2007). Mediating the vote: The changing media landscape in U.S. presidential campaigns. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. – reference: Agresti, A. (1996). An introduction to categorical data analysis. New York: Wiley. – reference: Long, J. S. (1997). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. – reference: Fiorina, M. P., Abrams, S. J., & Pope, J. C. (2005). Culture wars? The myth of polarized America. New York: Pearson Longman. – reference: Pew Research Center for the People and Press. (2004). Online news audience larger, more diverse: News audience increasingly polarized. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for the People and Press. – reference: Rutenberg, J., Thompson, M. W., & Kirkpatrick, D. D. (2008, February 21). For McCain, self-confidence on ethics poses its own risk. The New York Times, p. A1. – reference: Schramm, W., & Carter, R. F. (1959). Effectiveness of a political telethon. Public Opinion Quarterly, 23, 121-26. – reference: Klapper, J. T. (1964). The effects of mass communication. New York: Free Press. – reference: Alvarez, R. M., & Nagler, J. (1996). When politics and models collide: Estimating models of multiparty elections. American Journal of Political Science, 42, 55-96. – reference: Gunther, A. C., Christen, C. T., Liebhart, J. L., & Chia, S. C. -Y. (2001). Congenial public, contrary press, and biased estimates of the climate of opinion. Public Opinion Quarterly, 65, 295-320. – reference: Iyengar, S., & McGrady, J. (2007). Media and politics: A citizen's guide. New York: W.W. Norton. – reference: Fox, J. (1997). Applied regression, linear models, and related methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. – reference: McFadden, D. (1974). The measurement of urban travel demand. Journal of Public Economics, 26, 303-328. – reference: Adams, J., & Merrill, S., III. (2000). 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| SubjectTerms | Audience Communication Conservatives Democratic parties Ideology Media News News media Political behaviour Political parties Political sociology Politics Preferences Republican parties Sociology Sociology of communication and mass media. Sociolinguistics Sociology of knowledge and sociology of culture Television U.S.A |
| Title | Red Media, Blue Media: Evidence of Ideological Selectivity in Media Use |
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