Wind loading of trees: influence of tree size and competition
Wind damage to forests is an important ecological disturbance factor. At the same time, it can have serious economic consequences due to a reduction in timber production. Current models for predicting the risk of wind damage are useful, but generally only focus on the “mean” tree within uniform stan...
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| Published in | European journal of forest research Vol. 131; no. 1; pp. 203 - 217 |
|---|---|
| Main Authors | , , , , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
Berlin/Heidelberg
Springer-Verlag
01.01.2012
Springer Nature B.V |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
| ISSN | 1612-4669 1612-4677 |
| DOI | 10.1007/s10342-010-0448-2 |
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| Abstract | Wind damage to forests is an important ecological disturbance factor. At the same time, it can have serious economic consequences due to a reduction in timber production. Current models for predicting the risk of wind damage are useful, but generally only focus on the “mean” tree within uniform stands. This paper presents measurements made of wind loading on trees of different sizes within four forest stands of different structure and management history, but all well-acclimated to current wind conditions. Each tree demonstrated a linear relationship between the maximum hourly turning moment and the square of the average hourly wind speed at the canopy top; we defined this ratio (the gradient of the line
M
max
vs.
u
2
) as the turning moment coefficient (
T
C
).
T
C
was correlated with tree size, in a relationship that differed little between the four forest sites despite the differences between the stands. The relationship between
T
C
and individual tree competition within each stand was investigated, using both distance-independent and distance-dependent competition indices. All sites showed decreasing
T
C
with increasing competition. However, the relationships differed between sites and would also be expected to change through time for a single site. The distance-dependent indices offered no improvement over the simpler, non-spatial indices that required only a diameter distribution. We suggest how, subject to further work, the results presented could be applied to calculate the risk of wind damage to trees of different sizes within a forest stand, and how the risk of wind damage to individual trees might change in response to thinning. |
|---|---|
| AbstractList | Wind damage to forests is an important ecological disturbance factor. At the same time, it can have serious economic consequences due to a reduction in timber production. Current models for predicting the risk of wind damage are useful, but generally only focus on the “mean” tree within uniform stands. This paper presents measurements made of wind loading on trees of different sizes within four forest stands of different structure and management history, but all well-acclimated to current wind conditions. Each tree demonstrated a linear relationship between the maximum hourly turning moment and the square of the average hourly wind speed at the canopy top; we defined this ratio (the gradient of the line
M
max
vs.
u
2
) as the turning moment coefficient (
T
C
).
T
C
was correlated with tree size, in a relationship that differed little between the four forest sites despite the differences between the stands. The relationship between
T
C
and individual tree competition within each stand was investigated, using both distance-independent and distance-dependent competition indices. All sites showed decreasing
T
C
with increasing competition. However, the relationships differed between sites and would also be expected to change through time for a single site. The distance-dependent indices offered no improvement over the simpler, non-spatial indices that required only a diameter distribution. We suggest how, subject to further work, the results presented could be applied to calculate the risk of wind damage to trees of different sizes within a forest stand, and how the risk of wind damage to individual trees might change in response to thinning. Wind damage to forests is an important ecological disturbance factor. At the same time, it can have serious economic consequences due to a reduction in timber production. Current models for predicting the risk of wind damage are useful, but generally only focus on the "mean" tree within uniform stands. This paper presents measurements made of wind loading on trees of different sizes within four forest stands of different structure and management history, but all well-acclimated to current wind conditions. Each tree demonstrated a linear relationship between the maximum hourly turning moment and the square of the average hourly wind speed at the canopy top; we defined this ratio (the gradient of the line M max vs. u 2) as the turning moment coefficient (T C). T C was correlated with tree size, in a relationship that differed little between the four forest sites despite the differences between the stands. The relationship between T C and individual tree competition within each stand was investigated, using both distance-independent and distance-dependent competition indices. All sites showed decreasing T C with increasing competition. However, the relationships differed between sites and would also be expected to change through time for a single site. The distance-dependent indices offered no improvement over the simpler, non-spatial indices that required only a diameter distribution. We suggest how, subject to further work, the results presented could be applied to calculate the risk of wind damage to trees of different sizes within a forest stand, and how the risk of wind damage to individual trees might change in response to thinning. Wind damage to forests is an important ecological disturbance factor. At the same time, it can have serious economic consequences due to a reduction in timber production. Current models for predicting the risk of wind damage are useful, but generally only focus on the "mean" tree within uniform stands. This paper presents measurements made of wind loading on trees of different sizes within four forest stands of different structure and management history, but all well-acclimated to current wind conditions. Each tree demonstrated a linear relationship between the maximum hourly turning moment and the square of the average hourly wind speed at the canopy top; we defined this ratio (the gradient of the line M sub(max) vs. u super(2)) as the turning moment coefficient (T sub(C)). T sub(C) was correlated with tree size, in a relationship that differed little between the four forest sites despite the differences between the stands. The relationship between T sub(C) and individual tree competition within each stand was investigated, using both distance-independent and distance-dependent competition indices. All sites showed decreasing T sub(C) with increasing competition. However, the relationships differed between sites and would also be expected to change through time for a single site. The distance-dependent indices offered no improvement over the simpler, non-spatial indices that required only a diameter distribution. We suggest how, subject to further work, the results presented could be applied to calculate the risk of wind damage to trees of different sizes within a forest stand, and how the risk of wind damage to individual trees might change in response to thinning. Issue Title: Combined Special Issue: (1) Sustainability Impact Assessment of Forestry-Wood-Chains (2) Wind Effects on Trees Wind damage to forests is an important ecological disturbance factor. At the same time, it can have serious economic consequences due to a reduction in timber production. Current models for predicting the risk of wind damage are useful, but generally only focus on the "mean" tree within uniform stands. This paper presents measurements made of wind loading on trees of different sizes within four forest stands of different structure and management history, but all well-acclimated to current wind conditions. Each tree demonstrated a linear relationship between the maximum hourly turning moment and the square of the average hourly wind speed at the canopy top; we defined this ratio (the gradient of the line M ^sub max^ vs. u ^sup 2^) as the turning moment coefficient (T ^sub C^). T ^sub C^ was correlated with tree size, in a relationship that differed little between the four forest sites despite the differences between the stands. The relationship between T ^sub C^ and individual tree competition within each stand was investigated, using both distance-independent and distance-dependent competition indices. All sites showed decreasing T ^sub C^ with increasing competition. However, the relationships differed between sites and would also be expected to change through time for a single site. The distance-dependent indices offered no improvement over the simpler, non-spatial indices that required only a diameter distribution. We suggest how, subject to further work, the results presented could be applied to calculate the risk of wind damage to trees of different sizes within a forest stand, and how the risk of wind damage to individual trees might change in response to thinning.[PUBLICATION ABSTRACT] |
| Author | Hale, Sophie E. Gardiner, Barry A. Wellpott, Axel Nicoll, Bruce C. Achim, Alexis |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: Sophie E. surname: Hale fullname: Hale, Sophie E. email: sophie.hale@forestry.gsi.gov.uk organization: Forest Research, Northern Research Station – sequence: 2 givenname: Barry A. surname: Gardiner fullname: Gardiner, Barry A. organization: Forest Research, Northern Research Station – sequence: 3 givenname: Axel surname: Wellpott fullname: Wellpott, Axel organization: Forest Research, Northern Research Station, Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements, Cranfield University – sequence: 4 givenname: Bruce C. surname: Nicoll fullname: Nicoll, Bruce C. organization: Forest Research, Northern Research Station – sequence: 5 givenname: Alexis surname: Achim fullname: Achim, Alexis organization: Forest Research, Northern Research Station, Faculté de foresterie et de géomatique, Université Laval |
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| Keywords | Wind loading Mill Risk Competition indices Wind damage (Bong.) Carr |
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| References | Lanquaye-OpokuNMitchellSJPortability of stand-level empirical windthrow risk modelsFor Ecol Manage200521613414810.1016/j.foreco.2005.05.032 NiklasKJSpatzH-CAllometric theory and the mechanical stability of large trees: proof and conjectureAmer J Bot20069382482610.3732/ajb.93.6.824 RouvinenSKuuluvainenTStructure and asymmetry of tree crowns in relation to local competition in a natural mature Scots pine forestCan J For Res19972789090210.1139/x97-012 BigingGSDobbertinMA comparison of distance-dependent competition measures for height and basal area growth of individual conifer treesFor Sci199238695720 RuelJ-CPineauMWindthrow as an important process for white spruce regenerationFor Chron200278732738 BrüchertFGardinerBThe effect of wind exposure on the tree aerial architecture and biomechanics of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Bong.)Amer J Bot2006931512152110.3732/ajb.93.10.1512 GardinerBAMarshallBJAchimABelcherREWoodCJThe stability of different silvicultural systems: a wind-tunnel investigationForestry20057847148410.1093/forestry/cpi053 PeltolaHKellomäkiSVaisanenHIkonenV-PA mechanistic model for assessing the risk of wind and snow damage to single trees and stands of Scots pine, Norway spruce and birchCan J For Res19992964766110.1139/x99-029 SchaetzlRJJohnsonDLBurnsSFSmallTWTree uprooting: review of terminology, process and environmental implicationsCan J For Res19891911110.1139/x89-001 SchelhaasMJKramerKPeltolaHvan der WerfDCWijdevenSMJIntroducing tree interactions in wind damage simulationEcol Model200720719720910.1016/j.ecolmodel.2007.04.025 QuineCPCouttsMPGardinerBAPyattDGForests and wind: management to minimise damage1995LondonForestry Commission Bulletin 114 HMSO ScottREMitchellSJEmpirical modelling of windthrow risk in partially harvested stands using tree, neighbourhood and stand attributesFor Ecol Manage200521819320910.1016/j.foreco.2005.07.012 RogersMCaseyAMcMenaminCHendrickECouttsMPGraceJAn experimental investigation of the effects of dynamic wind loading on coniferous trees planted on wet mineral soilsWind and trees1995Cambridge, UKCambridge University Press20421910.1017/CBO9780511600425.012 MasonWLKerrGSimpsonJWhat is continuous cover forestry1999EdinburghForestry Commission Information Note 29 StadtKJHustonCCoatesKDFengZDaleMRTLieffersVJEvaluation of competition and light estimation indices for predicting diameter growth in mature boreal mixed forestsAnn For Sci20076447749010.1051/forest:2007025 CookNJThe designer’s guide to wind loading of building structures1985LondonButterworths NieuwenhuisMFitzpatrickPJAn assessment of stem breakage and the reduction in timber volume and value resulting from a catastrophic storm: an Irish case studyForestry20027551352310.1093/forestry/75.5.513 HartCAlternative silvicultural systems to clear cutting in Britain: a review. Bulletin 1151985LondonForestry Commission GardinerBASuarezJAchimAHaleSENicollBCForestGALES 2—A PC-based wind risk model for British forests—User guide2004EdinburghForestry Commission GardinerBAPeltolaHKellomakiSComparison of two models for predicting the critical wind speeds required to damage coniferous treesEcol Model200012912310.1016/S0304-3800(00)00220-9 QuineCPA preliminary survey of regeneration of Sitka spruce in wind-formed gaps in British planted forestsFor Ecol Manage2001151374210.1016/S0378-1127(00)00694-0 R Core Development Team (2008) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0, URL http://www.R-project.org GoudieJWPolssonKROttOKAn empirical model of crown shyness for lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia [Engl.] Critch.) in British ColumbiaFor Ecol Manage200925732133110.1016/j.foreco.2008.09.005 NicollBCGardinerBASalménLThe effects of increased wind action on the radial growth of tree stems and structural rootsProceedings of the fifth plant biomechanics conference, Aug. 28–Sept. 1, 20062006SwedenStockholm281286 UrbanSTLieffersVJMacDonaldSERelease in radial growth in the trunk and structural roots of white spruce as measured by dendrochronologyCan J For Res1994241550155610.1139/x94-202 HegyiFFriesJA simulation model for managing jack pine standsGrowth models for tree and stand simulation1974StockholmRoyal College of Forestry7490 CourbaudBGoreaudFDreyfusPBonnetFREvaluating thinning strategies using a tree distant dependent growth model: some examples based on the CAPSIS software “uneven-aged spruce forests” moduleFor Ecol Manage2001145152810.1016/S0378-1127(00)00571-5 Wellpott A (2008) The stability of continuous cover forests. PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh PayneRWMurrayDAHardingSABairdDBSoutarDMGenStat for windows: introduction200811Hemel HempsteadVSN International PeltolaHKellomäkiSHassinenAGrananderMMechanical stability of Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch: an analysis of tree pulling experiments in FinlandFor Ecol Manage200013514315310.1016/S0378-1127(00)00306-6 SavillPSSilviculture in windy climatesFor Abstr198344473488 AchimAWellpottAGardinerBCompetition indices as a measure of wind loading on individual trees, International conference on wind and trees, 5–9 August 20072007VancouverUniversity of British Columbia KiernanDHBevilacquaENylandRDIndividual-tree diameter growth model for sugar maple trees in uneven-aged northern hardwood stands under selectionFor Ecol Manage20082561579158610.1016/j.foreco.2008.06.015 NicollBCRayDAdaptive growth of tree root systems in response to wind action and site conditionsTree Physiol199611891898 AnonymousWoodlands for wales2009WalesForestry Commission NicollBCGardinerBARaynerBPeaceAJAnchorage of coniferous trees in relation to species, soil type, and rooting depthCan J For Res2006361871188310.1139/x06-072 PutzFEColeyPDLuKMontalvoAAielloAUprooting and snapping of trees: structural determinants and ecological consequencesCan J For Res1983131011102010.1139/x83-133 PretzschHBiberPDurskýJThe single tree-based stand simulator SILVA: construction, application and evaluationFor Ecol Manage200216232110.1016/S0378-1127(02)00047-6 AnonymousThe UK forestry standard—the government’s approach to sustainable forestry2004EdinburghForestry Commission Blackburn GRA (1997) The growth and mechanical response to trees to wind loading. PhD Thesis, University of Manchester MooreJRGardinerBABlackburnGRABrickmanAMaguireDAAn inexpensive instrument to measure the dynamic response of standing trees to wind loadingAgric For Meteorol2005132788310.1016/j.agrformet.2005.07.007 SchützJ-PZum problem der Konkurrenz in MischbestänenSchweiz Z Forstwes198914010691083 AnonymousThe Scottish forestry strategy2006EdinburghForestry Commission GardinerBAByrneKHaleSEKamimuraKMitchellSPeltolaHRuelJ-CA review of mechanistic modelling of wind damage risk to forestsForestry20088144746310.1093/forestry/cpn022 BigingGSDobbertinMEvaluation of competition indices in individual tree growth modelsFor Sci199541360377 BrüchertFRuckBKottmeierCMattheckCQuineCPWilhelmDGThe effect of growth space characteristics on the tree growth response with respect to tree mechanics and internal stem propertiesInternational Conference “wind effects on trees”, Sept. 16–18, 20032003GermanyKarlsruhe369375 CucchiVMeredieuCStokesAde ColignyFSuárezJGardinerBModelling the windthrow risk for simulated forest stands of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.)For Ecol Manage200521318419610.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.019 GardinerBAQuineCPManagement of forests to reduce the risk of abiotic damage—a review with particular reference to the effects of strong windsFor Ecol Manage200013526127710.1016/S0378-1127(00)00285-1 AncelinPCourbaudBFourcaudTDevelopment of an individual tree-based mechanical model to predict wind damage within forest standsFor Ecol Manage200420310112110.1016/j.foreco.2004.07.067 QuineCPWhiteIMSRevised windiness scores for the windthrow hazard classification: the revised scoring method1993EdinburghForestry Commission MasonWLKerrGTransforming even-aged conifer stands to continuous cover management2004EdinburghForestry Commission Information Note 40 (Revised) StokesANicollBCCouttsMPFitterAHResponses of young Sitka spruce clones to mechanical perturbation and nutrition: effects on biomass allocation, root development, and resistance to bendingCan J For Res1997271049105710.1139/x97-041 EnnosARWind as an ecological factorTrends Ecol Evol1997121081112123799410.1016/S0169-5347(96)10066-51:STN:280:DC%2BC3M7itFKiug%3D%3D GardinerBAStaceyGRBelcherREWoodCJField and wind tunnel assessments of the implications of respacing and thinning for tree stabilityForestry19977023325210.1093/forestry/70.3.233 V Cucchi (448_CR13) 2005; 213 CP Quine (448_CR40) 1993 P Ancelin (448_CR2) 2004; 203 Anonymous (448_CR4) 2006 GS Biging (448_CR6) 1992; 38 JR Moore (448_CR28) 2005; 132 BA Gardiner (448_CR20) 2008; 81 A Stokes (448_CR51) 1997; 27 N Lanquaye-Opoku (448_CR25) 2005; 216 H Pretzsch (448_CR37) 2002; 162 J-P Schütz (448_CR48) 1989; 140 DH Kiernan (448_CR24) 2008; 256 RE Scott (448_CR49) 2005; 218 F Hegyi (448_CR23) 1974 BC Nicoll (448_CR29) 2006 S Rouvinen (448_CR43) 1997; 27 RJ Schaetzl (448_CR46) 1989; 19 448_CR52 H Peltola (448_CR36) 2000; 135 448_CR54 CP Quine (448_CR41) 1995 J-C Ruel (448_CR44) 2002; 78 BC Nicoll (448_CR30) 1996; 11 F Brüchert (448_CR10) 2006; 93 WL Mason (448_CR26) 2004 CP Quine (448_CR39) 2001; 151 AR Ennos (448_CR14) 1997; 12 Anonymous (448_CR5) 2009 GS Biging (448_CR7) 1995; 41 C Hart (448_CR22) 1985 FE Putz (448_CR38) 1983; 13 BA Gardiner (448_CR15) 2000; 135 BA Gardiner (448_CR16) 1997; 70 F Brüchert (448_CR9) 2003 H Peltola (448_CR35) 1999; 29 BA Gardiner (448_CR18) 2004 448_CR8 Anonymous (448_CR3) 2004 M Rogers (448_CR42) 1995 KJ Niklas (448_CR33) 2006; 93 RW Payne (448_CR34) 2008 KJ Stadt (448_CR50) 2007; 64 BA Gardiner (448_CR19) 2005; 78 ST Urban (448_CR53) 1994; 24 NJ Cook (448_CR11) 1985 A Achim (448_CR1) 2007 WL Mason (448_CR27) 1999 MJ Schelhaas (448_CR47) 2007; 207 M Nieuwenhuis (448_CR32) 2002; 75 PS Savill (448_CR45) 1983; 44 BA Gardiner (448_CR17) 2000; 129 B Courbaud (448_CR12) 2001; 145 JW Goudie (448_CR21) 2009; 257 BC Nicoll (448_CR31) 2006; 36 |
| References_xml | – reference: CucchiVMeredieuCStokesAde ColignyFSuárezJGardinerBModelling the windthrow risk for simulated forest stands of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.)For Ecol Manage200521318419610.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.019 – reference: SchützJ-PZum problem der Konkurrenz in MischbestänenSchweiz Z Forstwes198914010691083 – reference: HartCAlternative silvicultural systems to clear cutting in Britain: a review. Bulletin 1151985LondonForestry Commission – reference: Lanquaye-OpokuNMitchellSJPortability of stand-level empirical windthrow risk modelsFor Ecol Manage200521613414810.1016/j.foreco.2005.05.032 – reference: KiernanDHBevilacquaENylandRDIndividual-tree diameter growth model for sugar maple trees in uneven-aged northern hardwood stands under selectionFor Ecol Manage20082561579158610.1016/j.foreco.2008.06.015 – reference: CookNJThe designer’s guide to wind loading of building structures1985LondonButterworths – reference: StokesANicollBCCouttsMPFitterAHResponses of young Sitka spruce clones to mechanical perturbation and nutrition: effects on biomass allocation, root development, and resistance to bendingCan J For Res1997271049105710.1139/x97-041 – reference: AchimAWellpottAGardinerBCompetition indices as a measure of wind loading on individual trees, International conference on wind and trees, 5–9 August 20072007VancouverUniversity of British Columbia – reference: NiklasKJSpatzH-CAllometric theory and the mechanical stability of large trees: proof and conjectureAmer J Bot20069382482610.3732/ajb.93.6.824 – reference: PeltolaHKellomäkiSVaisanenHIkonenV-PA mechanistic model for assessing the risk of wind and snow damage to single trees and stands of Scots pine, Norway spruce and birchCan J For Res19992964766110.1139/x99-029 – reference: NieuwenhuisMFitzpatrickPJAn assessment of stem breakage and the reduction in timber volume and value resulting from a catastrophic storm: an Irish case studyForestry20027551352310.1093/forestry/75.5.513 – reference: PeltolaHKellomäkiSHassinenAGrananderMMechanical stability of Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch: an analysis of tree pulling experiments in FinlandFor Ecol Manage200013514315310.1016/S0378-1127(00)00306-6 – reference: CourbaudBGoreaudFDreyfusPBonnetFREvaluating thinning strategies using a tree distant dependent growth model: some examples based on the CAPSIS software “uneven-aged spruce forests” moduleFor Ecol Manage2001145152810.1016/S0378-1127(00)00571-5 – reference: GardinerBAMarshallBJAchimABelcherREWoodCJThe stability of different silvicultural systems: a wind-tunnel investigationForestry20057847148410.1093/forestry/cpi053 – reference: Wellpott A (2008) The stability of continuous cover forests. PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh – reference: GardinerBAStaceyGRBelcherREWoodCJField and wind tunnel assessments of the implications of respacing and thinning for tree stabilityForestry19977023325210.1093/forestry/70.3.233 – reference: SchelhaasMJKramerKPeltolaHvan der WerfDCWijdevenSMJIntroducing tree interactions in wind damage simulationEcol Model200720719720910.1016/j.ecolmodel.2007.04.025 – reference: GardinerBAQuineCPManagement of forests to reduce the risk of abiotic damage—a review with particular reference to the effects of strong windsFor Ecol Manage200013526127710.1016/S0378-1127(00)00285-1 – reference: AncelinPCourbaudBFourcaudTDevelopment of an individual tree-based mechanical model to predict wind damage within forest standsFor Ecol Manage200420310112110.1016/j.foreco.2004.07.067 – reference: SavillPSSilviculture in windy climatesFor Abstr198344473488 – reference: BigingGSDobbertinMEvaluation of competition indices in individual tree growth modelsFor Sci199541360377 – reference: PayneRWMurrayDAHardingSABairdDBSoutarDMGenStat for windows: introduction200811Hemel HempsteadVSN International – reference: RouvinenSKuuluvainenTStructure and asymmetry of tree crowns in relation to local competition in a natural mature Scots pine forestCan J For Res19972789090210.1139/x97-012 – reference: AnonymousThe Scottish forestry strategy2006EdinburghForestry Commission – reference: MooreJRGardinerBABlackburnGRABrickmanAMaguireDAAn inexpensive instrument to measure the dynamic response of standing trees to wind loadingAgric For Meteorol2005132788310.1016/j.agrformet.2005.07.007 – reference: MasonWLKerrGTransforming even-aged conifer stands to continuous cover management2004EdinburghForestry Commission Information Note 40 (Revised) – reference: NicollBCRayDAdaptive growth of tree root systems in response to wind action and site conditionsTree Physiol199611891898 – reference: AnonymousThe UK forestry standard—the government’s approach to sustainable forestry2004EdinburghForestry Commission – reference: NicollBCGardinerBASalménLThe effects of increased wind action on the radial growth of tree stems and structural rootsProceedings of the fifth plant biomechanics conference, Aug. 28–Sept. 1, 20062006SwedenStockholm281286 – reference: RuelJ-CPineauMWindthrow as an important process for white spruce regenerationFor Chron200278732738 – reference: GardinerBAPeltolaHKellomakiSComparison of two models for predicting the critical wind speeds required to damage coniferous treesEcol Model200012912310.1016/S0304-3800(00)00220-9 – reference: AnonymousWoodlands for wales2009WalesForestry Commission – reference: GoudieJWPolssonKROttOKAn empirical model of crown shyness for lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia [Engl.] Critch.) in British ColumbiaFor Ecol Manage200925732133110.1016/j.foreco.2008.09.005 – reference: MasonWLKerrGSimpsonJWhat is continuous cover forestry1999EdinburghForestry Commission Information Note 29 – reference: StadtKJHustonCCoatesKDFengZDaleMRTLieffersVJEvaluation of competition and light estimation indices for predicting diameter growth in mature boreal mixed forestsAnn For Sci20076447749010.1051/forest:2007025 – reference: RogersMCaseyAMcMenaminCHendrickECouttsMPGraceJAn experimental investigation of the effects of dynamic wind loading on coniferous trees planted on wet mineral soilsWind and trees1995Cambridge, UKCambridge University Press20421910.1017/CBO9780511600425.012 – reference: HegyiFFriesJA simulation model for managing jack pine standsGrowth models for tree and stand simulation1974StockholmRoyal College of Forestry7490 – reference: GardinerBAByrneKHaleSEKamimuraKMitchellSPeltolaHRuelJ-CA review of mechanistic modelling of wind damage risk to forestsForestry20088144746310.1093/forestry/cpn022 – reference: NicollBCGardinerBARaynerBPeaceAJAnchorage of coniferous trees in relation to species, soil type, and rooting depthCan J For Res2006361871188310.1139/x06-072 – reference: BrüchertFGardinerBThe effect of wind exposure on the tree aerial architecture and biomechanics of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Bong.)Amer J Bot2006931512152110.3732/ajb.93.10.1512 – reference: QuineCPCouttsMPGardinerBAPyattDGForests and wind: management to minimise damage1995LondonForestry Commission Bulletin 114 HMSO – reference: QuineCPWhiteIMSRevised windiness scores for the windthrow hazard classification: the revised scoring method1993EdinburghForestry Commission – reference: SchaetzlRJJohnsonDLBurnsSFSmallTWTree uprooting: review of terminology, process and environmental implicationsCan J For Res19891911110.1139/x89-001 – reference: UrbanSTLieffersVJMacDonaldSERelease in radial growth in the trunk and structural roots of white spruce as measured by dendrochronologyCan J For Res1994241550155610.1139/x94-202 – reference: PutzFEColeyPDLuKMontalvoAAielloAUprooting and snapping of trees: structural determinants and ecological consequencesCan J For Res1983131011102010.1139/x83-133 – reference: GardinerBASuarezJAchimAHaleSENicollBCForestGALES 2—A PC-based wind risk model for British forests—User guide2004EdinburghForestry Commission – reference: Blackburn GRA (1997) The growth and mechanical response to trees to wind loading. PhD Thesis, University of Manchester – reference: R Core Development Team (2008) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0, URL http://www.R-project.org – reference: PretzschHBiberPDurskýJThe single tree-based stand simulator SILVA: construction, application and evaluationFor Ecol Manage200216232110.1016/S0378-1127(02)00047-6 – reference: QuineCPA preliminary survey of regeneration of Sitka spruce in wind-formed gaps in British planted forestsFor Ecol Manage2001151374210.1016/S0378-1127(00)00694-0 – reference: BigingGSDobbertinMA comparison of distance-dependent competition measures for height and basal area growth of individual conifer treesFor Sci199238695720 – reference: BrüchertFRuckBKottmeierCMattheckCQuineCPWilhelmDGThe effect of growth space characteristics on the tree growth response with respect to tree mechanics and internal stem propertiesInternational Conference “wind effects on trees”, Sept. 16–18, 20032003GermanyKarlsruhe369375 – reference: ScottREMitchellSJEmpirical modelling of windthrow risk in partially harvested stands using tree, neighbourhood and stand attributesFor Ecol Manage200521819320910.1016/j.foreco.2005.07.012 – reference: EnnosARWind as an ecological factorTrends Ecol Evol1997121081112123799410.1016/S0169-5347(96)10066-51:STN:280:DC%2BC3M7itFKiug%3D%3D – volume: 162 start-page: 3 year: 2002 ident: 448_CR37 publication-title: For Ecol Manage doi: 10.1016/S0378-1127(02)00047-6 – volume: 36 start-page: 1871 year: 2006 ident: 448_CR31 publication-title: Can J For Res doi: 10.1139/x06-072 – volume-title: Transforming even-aged conifer stands to continuous cover management year: 2004 ident: 448_CR26 – volume: 132 start-page: 78 year: 2005 ident: 448_CR28 publication-title: Agric For Meteorol doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2005.07.007 – volume: 256 start-page: 1579 year: 2008 ident: 448_CR24 publication-title: For Ecol Manage doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2008.06.015 – volume: 81 start-page: 447 year: 2008 ident: 448_CR20 publication-title: Forestry doi: 10.1093/forestry/cpn022 – volume: 27 start-page: 890 year: 1997 ident: 448_CR43 publication-title: Can J 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| Snippet | Wind damage to forests is an important ecological disturbance factor. At the same time, it can have serious economic consequences due to a reduction in timber... Issue Title: Combined Special Issue: (1) Sustainability Impact Assessment of Forestry-Wood-Chains (2) Wind Effects on Trees Wind damage to forests is an... |
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| StartPage | 203 |
| SubjectTerms | Biomedical and Life Sciences canopy Competition forest damage forest stands Forestry forests Life Sciences Original Paper Plant Ecology Plant Sciences risk stand structure timber production tree damage Trees Wind power Wind speed |
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| Title | Wind loading of trees: influence of tree size and competition |
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