Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines

The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women's underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D. level in some sciences and poorly represented in some humanities (e.g., in 2011, 54% of U.S. Ph.D.'s in molecular biology were wom...

Full description

Saved in:

Bibliographic Details
Published in	Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) Vol. 347; no. 6219; pp. 262 - 265
Main Authors	Leslie, Sarah-Jane, Cimpian, Andrei, Meyer, Meredith, Freeland, Edward
Format	Journal Article
Language	English
Published	United States American Association for the Advancement of Science 16.01.2015 The American Association for the Advancement of Science
Subjects	Achievement African Americans Aptitude Attitude Career Choice Culture Disproportionate Representation Education, Graduate Faculty Female Females Gender Discrimination Gender equity Humans Hypotheses Intellectual Disciplines Intelligence Male Molecular biology Natural Science Disciplines - manpower Philosophy Raw Representations Scientists Sex Characteristics Sexism Social Sciences - manpower Stereotyping Students Surveys and Questionnaires Talent Women
Online Access	Get full text

Cover

Loading…

Abstract	The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women's underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D. level in some sciences and poorly represented in some humanities (e.g., in 2011, 54% of U.S. Ph.D.'s in molecular biology were women versus only 31% in philosophy). We hypothesize that, across the academic spectrum, women are underrepresented in fields whose practitioners believe that raw, innate talent is the main requirement for success, because women are stereotyped as not possessing such talent. This hypothesis extends to African Americans' underrepresentation as well, as this group is subject to similar stereotypes. Results from a nationwide survey of academics support our hypothesis (termed the field-specific ability beliefs hypothesis) over three competing hypotheses.
AbstractList	Some scientific disciplines have lower percentages of women in academia than others. Leslie et al. hypothesized that general attitudes about the discipline would reflect the representation of women in those fields (see the Perspective by Penner). Surveys revealed that some fields are believed to require attributes such as brilliance and genius, whereas other fields are believed to require more empathy or hard work. In fields where people thought that raw talent was required, academic departments had lower percentages of women. Science, this issue p. 262; see also p. 234 The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women's underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D. level in some sciences and poorly represented in some humanities (e.g., in 2011, 54% of U.S. Ph.D.'s in molecular biology were women versus only 31% in philosophy). We hypothesize that, across the academic spectrum, women are underrepresented in fields whose practitioners believe that raw, innate talent is the main requirement for success, because women are stereotyped as not possessing such talent. This hypothesis extends to African Americans' underrepresentation as well, as this group is subject to similar stereotypes. Results from a nationwide survey of academics support our hypothesis (termed the field-specific ability beliefs hypothesis) over three competing hypotheses. Some scientific disciplines have lower percentages of women in academia than others. Leslie et al. hypothesized that general attitudes about the discipline would reflect the representation of women in those fields (see the Perspective by Penner). Surveys revealed that some fields are believed to require attributes such as brilliance and genius, whereas other fields are believed to require more empathy or hard work. In fields where people thought that raw talent was required, academic departments had lower percentages of women. Science , this issue p. 262 ; see also p. 234 General opinions about talent versus effort hold sway over representation of women in academic departments. [Also see Perspective by Penner ] The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women’s underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D. level in some sciences and poorly represented in some humanities (e.g., in 2011, 54% of U.S. Ph.D.’s in molecular biology were women versus only 31% in philosophy). We hypothesize that, across the academic spectrum, women are underrepresented in fields whose practitioners believe that raw, innate talent is the main requirement for success, because women are stereotyped as not possessing such talent. This hypothesis extends to African Americans’ underrepresentation as well, as this group is subject to similar stereotypes. Results from a nationwide survey of academics support our hypothesis (termed the field-specific ability beliefs hypothesis) over three competing hypotheses. Women's participation and attitudes to talentSome scientific disciplines have lower percentages of women in academia than others. Leslie et al. hypothesized that general attitudes about the discipline would reflect the representation of women in those fields (see the Perspective by Penner). Surveys revealed that some fields are believed to require attributes such as brilliance and genius, whereas other fields are believed to require more empathy or hard work. In fields where people thought that raw talent was required, academic departments had lower percentages of women.Science, this issue p. 262; see also p. 234 The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women's underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D. level in some sciences and poorly represented in some humanities (e.g., in 2011, 54% of U.S. Ph.D.'s in molecular biology were women versus only 31% in philosophy). We hypothesize that, across the academic spectrum, women are underrepresented in fields whose practitioners believe that raw, innate talent is the main requirement for success, because women are stereotyped as not possessing such talent. This hypothesis extends to African Americans' underrepresentation as well, as this group is subject to similar stereotypes. Results from a nationwide survey of academics support our hypothesis (termed the field-specific ability beliefs hypothesis) over three competing hypotheses. The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women's underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D. level in some sciences and poorly represented in some humanities (e.g., in 2011, 54% of U.S. Ph.D.'s in molecular biology were women versus only 31% in philosophy). We hypothesize that, across the academic spectrum, women are underrepresented in fields whose practitioners believe that raw, innate talent is the main requirement for success, because women are stereotyped as not possessing such talent. This hypothesis extends to African Americans' underrepresentation as well, as this group is subject to similar stereotypes. Results from a nationwide survey of academics support our hypothesis (termed the field-specific ability beliefs hypothesis) over three competing hypotheses. The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women's underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D. level in some sciences and poorly represented in some humanities (e.g., in 2011, 54% of U.S. Ph.D.'s in molecular biology were women versus only 31% in philosophy). We hypothesize that, across the academic spectrum, women are underrepresented in fields whose practitioners believe that raw, innate talent is the main requirement for success, because women are stereotyped as not possessing such talent. This hypothesis extends to African Americans' underrepresentation as well, as this group is subject to similar stereotypes. Results from a nationwide survey of academics support our hypothesis (termed the field-specific ability beliefs hypothesis) over three competing hypotheses.The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women's underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D. level in some sciences and poorly represented in some humanities (e.g., in 2011, 54% of U.S. Ph.D.'s in molecular biology were women versus only 31% in philosophy). We hypothesize that, across the academic spectrum, women are underrepresented in fields whose practitioners believe that raw, innate talent is the main requirement for success, because women are stereotyped as not possessing such talent. This hypothesis extends to African Americans' underrepresentation as well, as this group is subject to similar stereotypes. Results from a nationwide survey of academics support our hypothesis (termed the field-specific ability beliefs hypothesis) over three competing hypotheses.
Author	Meyer, Meredith Freeland, Edward Cimpian, Andrei Leslie, Sarah-Jane
Author_xml	– sequence: 1 givenname: Sarah-Jane surname: Leslie fullname: Leslie, Sarah-Jane – sequence: 2 givenname: Andrei surname: Cimpian fullname: Cimpian, Andrei – sequence: 3 givenname: Meredith surname: Meyer fullname: Meyer, Meredith – sequence: 4 givenname: Edward surname: Freeland fullname: Freeland, Edward
BackLink	https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25593183$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed
BookMark	eNqFkUtLxTAQhYMo3oeuXSkFN256TZpHb5YivkBwo-uQphPJpS-TFvTfm9qKIIgQOAPzncNkZoX2m7YBhE4I3hCSictgHDQGNrEmNOd7aEmw5KnMMN1HS4ypSLc45wu0CmGHcexJeogWGY9KtnSJnm_eOzC97l3bhKS1SeFdVTkdQ5OhKcFXDpJXGKukdKH3rhgmVhvfhlF0CbUzY9e4rnINhCN0YHUV4HjWNXq5vXm-vk8fn-4erq8eU8OY6NOc57zYgiaUESOZNEJzLIiVQhel1TK3zJKc2DIKLgF0FkFreWkLKqjO6RpdTLmdb98GCL2q4xBQVbqBdgiKSMyyr_c_KnjGsMRCRvT8F7prB9_Ej0SK8a0UQoyBZzM1FDWUqvOu1v5Dfa82AnwCvvbkwSrjpj33XrtKEazGE6r5hGo-YfRd_vJ9R__tOJ0cu9C3_mcSlsdpY_8Ty9-png
CODEN	SCIEAS
CitedBy_id	crossref_primary_10_1038_d41586_024_02502_6 crossref_primary_10_5964_jspp_8311 crossref_primary_10_1111_cdev_14012 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41467_023_39079_z crossref_primary_10_1111_jopp_12259 crossref_primary_10_1002_jclp_22217 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2021_641695 crossref_primary_10_1080_10463283_2022_2109294 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_18_010116 crossref_primary_10_1039_D1RP00092F crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_17_013103 crossref_primary_10_1093_jcmc_zmad047 crossref_primary_10_1080_16066359_2018_1426753 crossref_primary_10_1111_cdev_14007 crossref_primary_10_1111_papq_12302 crossref_primary_10_1119_10_0002725 crossref_primary_10_1080_09540253_2020_1775168 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_18_020147 crossref_primary_10_1177_0146167218759288 crossref_primary_10_1080_13602381_2024_2320547 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0240903 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_18_020140 crossref_primary_10_1088_1361_6404_ac0e1e crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0225763 crossref_primary_10_1007_s41979_023_00086_w crossref_primary_10_1080_15332276_2019_1721171 crossref_primary_10_1186_s12995_016_0133_6 crossref_primary_10_1111_sipr_12052 crossref_primary_10_1080_03043797_2022_2134760 crossref_primary_10_1002_jee_20350 crossref_primary_10_1123_jpah_2023_0442 crossref_primary_10_1111_bjep_12572 crossref_primary_10_1177_00380407221076490 crossref_primary_10_1177_0743558420967113 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_21_010114 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_18_010138 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_18_010139 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_nedt_2024_106277 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10639_022_11110_8 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11031_020_09827_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s41979_024_00137_w crossref_primary_10_1177_1088868317734080 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2019_02386 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10677_019_09984_8 crossref_primary_10_1093_rcfs_cfac013 crossref_primary_10_1007_s42413_021_00149_z crossref_primary_10_1177_09637214231173361 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_021_09663_6 crossref_primary_10_1177_0098628320979894 crossref_primary_10_1026_0049_8637_a000210 crossref_primary_10_18261_issn_1891_1781_2019_02_04 crossref_primary_10_1080_00221546_2019_1602392 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci14030227 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11199_023_01357_x crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_022_09736_0 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2022_820254 crossref_primary_10_1111_jasp_12883 crossref_primary_10_1590_0001_3765202320211629 crossref_primary_10_1111_cdev_14213 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_15_020119 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3110865 crossref_primary_10_1080_10645578_2021_1930467 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ejrad_2024_111428 crossref_primary_10_1093_sf_soy123 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_18_020111 crossref_primary_10_1140_epjds_s13688_019_0190_z crossref_primary_10_1146_annurev_soc_071312_145659 crossref_primary_10_1177_0266242620927312 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0174296 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2022_102079 crossref_primary_10_1080_00221309_2020_1853502 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_019_09538_x crossref_primary_10_1136_bmjopen_2016_012090 crossref_primary_10_1111_theo_12077 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_023_09851_6 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2024_1438299 crossref_primary_10_1177_0890207020980934 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ijer_2020_101616 crossref_primary_10_1080_04353684_2018_1507612 crossref_primary_10_1080_10400419_2023_2255445 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43545_023_00798_1 crossref_primary_10_7554_eLife_83071 crossref_primary_10_3389_fsoc_2019_00026 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_022_00333_3 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10763_025_10565_8 crossref_primary_10_1111_cogs_12782 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41598_017_13491_0 crossref_primary_10_1187_cbe_21_09_0237 crossref_primary_10_1111_cdep_12424 crossref_primary_10_17159_sajs_2021_12757 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2022_102097 crossref_primary_10_1177_09636625211002375 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2022_754233 crossref_primary_10_1073_pnas_2113067119 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ssresearch_2020_102484 crossref_primary_10_1177_17456916221093593 crossref_primary_10_1590_198053147635 crossref_primary_10_1080_00224545_2022_2110030 crossref_primary_10_1142_S0219525917500114 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_annals_2016_12_011 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_025_10035_7 crossref_primary_10_1111_desc_13243 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_paid_2025_113111 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_15_020148 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_lindif_2024_102410 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_18_020123 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_18_020127 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41567_024_02391_6 crossref_primary_10_32872_spb_5337 crossref_primary_10_7717_peerj_8247 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2022_796069 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10648_015_9355_x crossref_primary_10_1080_00220973_2018_1469111 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0163376 crossref_primary_10_1080_13598139_2019_1607722 crossref_primary_10_1111_bjso_12515 crossref_primary_10_1111_cdev_13560 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0140525X23001176 crossref_primary_10_3390_math10111793 crossref_primary_10_3390_su142114069 crossref_primary_10_1080_0020739X_2023_2184279 crossref_primary_10_1177_23328584221130999 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10964_022_01587_4 crossref_primary_10_1119_5_0054759 crossref_primary_10_1002_tea_22000 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_heliyon_2022_e11169 crossref_primary_10_1002_sce_21688 crossref_primary_10_1073_pnas_1621073114 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2024_102282 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci15010092 crossref_primary_10_1002_sce_21461 crossref_primary_10_1287_orsc_2023_18018 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0291444 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11199_020_01157_7 crossref_primary_10_1073_pnas_1905779116 crossref_primary_10_1080_0047231X_2024_2363119 crossref_primary_10_1187_cbe_22_12_0250 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_15_010127 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11422_016_9742_8 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_15_010121 crossref_primary_10_1111_hypa_12401 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci12110775 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11948_016_9772_3 crossref_primary_10_1177_2372732220943232 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3022386 crossref_primary_10_1080_19392397_2015_1088394 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_5080573 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_lindif_2018_01_015 crossref_primary_10_1080_00224545_2019_1675576 crossref_primary_10_1187_cbe_24_02_0086 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_022_00342_2 crossref_primary_10_1080_10511970_2021_1907823 crossref_primary_10_1177_07311214221125802 crossref_primary_10_1002_jee_20187 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2022_792756 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2019_01217 crossref_primary_10_1086_725389 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jesp_2024_104680 crossref_primary_10_32872_spb_2897 crossref_primary_10_1093_arisup_akz003 crossref_primary_10_1177_00380407211014777 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_crbeha_2023_100097 crossref_primary_10_1126_sciadv_abm3689 crossref_primary_10_1080_14461242_2024_2371132 crossref_primary_10_1002_sce_21673 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tics_2019_09_010 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_12_020110 crossref_primary_10_1111_desc_13429 crossref_primary_10_1093_arisup_akz006 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci8030098 crossref_primary_10_1177_1088868320947005 crossref_primary_10_1002_tea_21597 crossref_primary_10_1002_tea_21594 crossref_primary_10_1080_00220973_2020_1808944 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2021_714321 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_12_020106 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_12_020107 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2025_102349 crossref_primary_10_1088_1361_6404_ad57b2 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0161357 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2019_00150 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3998218 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_020_09588_6 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci8020065 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11616_022_00762_8 crossref_primary_10_1002_ece3_6915 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11192_022_04337_2 crossref_primary_10_1119_5_0242316 crossref_primary_10_1080_0966369X_2022_2053068 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_learninstruc_2023_101770 crossref_primary_10_1080_24740500_2019_1705231 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_rama_2017_08_003 crossref_primary_10_1111_cdev_13531 crossref_primary_10_1111_sipr_12085 crossref_primary_10_1111_cdev_13774 crossref_primary_10_1007_s41979_023_00114_9 crossref_primary_10_1086_705514 crossref_primary_10_5194_gc_4_83_2021 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_obhdp_2022_104223 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11024_024_09567_7 crossref_primary_10_1108_EDI_01_2021_0028 crossref_primary_10_1177_09567976211044133 crossref_primary_10_1093_jamia_ocad108 crossref_primary_10_1002_tea_21580 crossref_primary_10_1525_abt_2024_86_8_496 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jesp_2020_104026 crossref_primary_10_1038_s44159_024_00380_3 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jesp_2020_104020 crossref_primary_10_3389_fnhum_2023_1094830 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_16_010118 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41467_018_06292_0 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cognition_2020_104383 crossref_primary_10_1002_tea_21670 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41586_019_1466_y crossref_primary_10_1002_he_20472 crossref_primary_10_3390_socsci13100549 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11199_023_01406_5 crossref_primary_10_3390_challe6010026 crossref_primary_10_1111_sjop_13093 crossref_primary_10_1111_josi_12352 crossref_primary_10_1177_01461672231188277 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_lmot_2022_101840 crossref_primary_10_1021_acs_jchemed_1c00366 crossref_primary_10_1111_ssm_12651 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci12110811 crossref_primary_10_3998_phimp_2109 crossref_primary_10_19126_suje_533645 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11199_016_0593_2 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_16_020132 crossref_primary_10_1111_imig_13125 crossref_primary_10_1093_jssam_smad046 crossref_primary_10_1080_15332276_2022_2075293 crossref_primary_10_1038_s44271_025_00223_8 crossref_primary_10_1177_0162243920941588 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11162_023_09769_0 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_neuropsychologia_2022_108306 crossref_primary_10_1080_00048402_2022_2058034 crossref_primary_10_17227_rce_num86_12400 crossref_primary_10_1177_0002764218768872 crossref_primary_10_1177_0261429416649041 crossref_primary_10_1093_reseval_rvx008 crossref_primary_10_1080_00131725_2023_2228354 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10670_016_9826_6 crossref_primary_10_12688_f1000research_13030_2 crossref_primary_10_1024_1010_0652_a000295 crossref_primary_10_12688_f1000research_13030_1 crossref_primary_10_3389_fnagi_2023_1168414 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tate_2023_104367 crossref_primary_10_3390_su12166597 crossref_primary_10_1073_pnas_2210704120 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_actpsy_2023_103845 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_leaqua_2021_101563 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10964_020_01195_0 crossref_primary_10_1145_3471574 crossref_primary_10_1177_0956797620929984 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_pto_2023_01_003 crossref_primary_10_15195_v11_a37 crossref_primary_10_1002_cdq_12338 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13187_024_02466_1 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_4059668 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_021_00300_4 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2022_912941 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11245_016_9402_3 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_021_00324_w crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jairtraman_2020_101823 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3728366 crossref_primary_10_1002_ece3_6188 crossref_primary_10_1039_D4RP00068D crossref_primary_10_1097_ACM_0000000000003555 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci14101092 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10664_019_09685_x crossref_primary_10_1111_josi_12393 crossref_primary_10_1177_2372732219862572 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_riob_2020_100126 crossref_primary_10_4236_ce_2024_1510128 crossref_primary_10_1177_07356331221092660 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_riob_2020_100127 crossref_primary_10_1177_1948550616667611 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_joep_2021_102361 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_024_10002_8 crossref_primary_10_1111_area_12648 crossref_primary_10_1088_1361_6633_ad91c4 crossref_primary_10_1093_postmj_qgae161 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_riob_2020_100121 crossref_primary_10_1002_ejsp_2774 crossref_primary_10_1111_desc_12837 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3911591 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41562_022_01498_1 crossref_primary_10_12677_ap_2024_145283 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2022_1015649 crossref_primary_10_1002_sce_21506 crossref_primary_10_3102_01623737241255348 crossref_primary_10_1002_sce_21502 crossref_primary_10_1177_15291006231163179 crossref_primary_10_1177_0963721420904453 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3936062 crossref_primary_10_1177_0734371X241258201 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0265051724000305 crossref_primary_10_3389_feduc_2023_1194968 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44217_024_00227_2 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_joi_2015_12_004 crossref_primary_10_1108_IJSSP_08_2023_0184 crossref_primary_10_1093_ej_uead045 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11192_018_2848_x crossref_primary_10_1093_jleo_ewae014 crossref_primary_10_3102_0034654320914742 crossref_primary_10_1080_10400419_2016_1229978 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_021_00313_z crossref_primary_10_1080_13869795_2015_1032331 crossref_primary_10_1080_17439760_2022_2155220 crossref_primary_10_1080_00048402_2022_2048402 crossref_primary_10_1080_10409289_2021_1928444 crossref_primary_10_4000_estetica_2058 crossref_primary_10_1126_sciadv_aau4734 crossref_primary_10_1002_tea_21829 crossref_primary_10_1177_1076217518786955 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0148405 crossref_primary_10_30786_jef_650246 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_20_010138 crossref_primary_10_4000_estetica_2065 crossref_primary_10_1080_09500693_2023_2300147 crossref_primary_10_1080_13803611_2018_1550842 crossref_primary_10_1126_sciadv_abo1558 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11199_024_01493_y crossref_primary_10_1177_0003122419837567 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cognition_2024_105740 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_024_00485_4 crossref_primary_10_3390_su141811345 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10212_024_00809_6 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_hrmr_2024_101029 crossref_primary_10_1111_spc3_12305 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_19_010126 crossref_primary_10_1002_ana_25478 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11192_021_03885_3 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jesp_2017_11_006 crossref_primary_10_1126_science_adr0787 crossref_primary_10_1177_23780231211025183 crossref_primary_10_1080_00461520_2016_1252264 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41562_020_0918_6 crossref_primary_10_1111_imcb_12568 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11191_020_00177_9 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2022_102056 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2022_102055 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ijhm_2024_103772 crossref_primary_10_12677_AP_2024_142124 crossref_primary_10_1109_TE_2024_3359534 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_dr_2021_100997 crossref_primary_10_1177_20543581211033405 crossref_primary_10_1080_02691728_2016_1241320 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_19_010140 crossref_primary_10_1080_24705357_2016_1249423 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jesp_2018_09_005 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_20_020142 crossref_primary_10_1002_asi_24723 crossref_primary_10_3389_frym_2020_00037 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_20_010102 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cpa_2018_09_001 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10734_022_00918_5 crossref_primary_10_1026_0049_8637_a000292 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_actpsy_2024_104157 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_021_00315_x crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_14_020113 crossref_primary_10_1126_science_aah6524 crossref_primary_10_1126_sciadv_adi2205 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_023_00431_w crossref_primary_10_1111_hypa_12149 crossref_primary_10_1162_qss_a_00148 crossref_primary_10_29333_ejmste_9374 crossref_primary_10_1088_1361_6404_ac51b1 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11199_019_01019_x crossref_primary_10_1177_1046878120983384 crossref_primary_10_1177_2372732219873009 crossref_primary_10_1177_1745691618814773 crossref_primary_10_1111_hypa_12150 crossref_primary_10_1086_713903 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_copsyc_2019_09_008 crossref_primary_10_21423_jume_v13i1a377 crossref_primary_10_1177_08912432211001384 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_023_00420_z crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_20_020126 crossref_primary_10_1111_peps_12470 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tim_2023_03_004 crossref_primary_10_1140_epjds_s13688_023_00439_w crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_20_020120 crossref_primary_10_1111_bjep_12488 crossref_primary_10_1027_1864_9335_a000277 crossref_primary_10_12677_AP_2022_123082 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_socnet_2021_12_007 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_018_01986_w crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0282262 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_19_020137 crossref_primary_10_1187_cbe_16_01_0036 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_19_020134 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41467_024_54612_4 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_19_020135 crossref_primary_10_3389_feduc_2024_1442806 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2018_08_003 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10763_016_9793_z crossref_primary_10_1016_j_euroecorev_2020_103448 crossref_primary_10_1177_00472875251323512 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_022_09741_3 crossref_primary_10_1080_09668136_2021_1998381 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10805_021_09400_w crossref_primary_10_1177_00031224241233696 crossref_primary_10_1093_femsle_fnx057 crossref_primary_10_1021_acs_jchemed_1c01047 crossref_primary_10_31820_ejap_19_1_5 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jesp_2023_104501 crossref_primary_10_1080_00221546_2018_1434278 crossref_primary_10_1146_annurev_anthro_102218_011133 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cobeha_2015_04_001 crossref_primary_10_1177_23727322231220356 crossref_primary_10_1097_ACM_0000000000002052 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_rssm_2025_101036 crossref_primary_10_1177_0956797618813092 crossref_primary_10_12677_ASS_2021_102057 crossref_primary_10_1038_nature_2015_16727 crossref_primary_10_1093_analys_any011 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10956_020_09813_z crossref_primary_10_1119_5_0223983 crossref_primary_10_1002_jee_20456 crossref_primary_10_1111_bjep_12676 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_leaqua_2015_11_002 crossref_primary_10_14202_vetworld_2017_1008_1019 crossref_primary_10_1098_rsos_230863 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2024_102319 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2016_03_004 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3014467 crossref_primary_10_1080_10511970_2019_1686669 crossref_primary_10_3389_feduc_2022_1066341 crossref_primary_10_1108_IJSHE_04_2024_0276 crossref_primary_10_3390_socsci7020027 crossref_primary_10_1080_1047840X_2021_1930741 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2021_701945 crossref_primary_10_1177_00332941211000667 crossref_primary_10_1177_0731121417724774 crossref_primary_10_1111_bjep_12208 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2018_01535 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0030605320000940 crossref_primary_10_1177_23780231221127537 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_023_00399_7 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2019_01_004 crossref_primary_10_1108_GM_12_2021_0379 crossref_primary_10_2147_PRBM_S258057 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2024_102324 crossref_primary_10_1145_3474097 crossref_primary_10_1007_s40299_020_00546_6 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11125_017_9391_z crossref_primary_10_1080_03075079_2023_2220702 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_lindif_2024_102562 crossref_primary_10_1111_eva_12282 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_2982143 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_2389218 crossref_primary_10_3102_0091732X241261310 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ssaho_2022_100287 crossref_primary_10_21061_see_86 crossref_primary_10_3196_004433023837586022 crossref_primary_10_1111_rati_12170 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11162_019_09573_9 crossref_primary_10_2478_jdis_2022_0001 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_020_00253_0 crossref_primary_10_15195_v7_a7 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci14040392 crossref_primary_10_1146_annurev_devpsych_121318_084824 crossref_primary_10_1111_eva_12276 crossref_primary_10_1007_s40732_020_00401_6 crossref_primary_10_1093_teamat_hraa009 crossref_primary_10_1080_09647775_2019_1691637 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jesp_2016_12_014 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11199_021_01240_7 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tate_2016_06_004 crossref_primary_10_3390_socsci7010007 crossref_primary_10_1111_phpr_13064 crossref_primary_10_1080_00220973_2023_2267006 crossref_primary_10_1038_s42254_023_00685_x crossref_primary_10_1111_bjdp_12356 crossref_primary_10_1186_s13293_022_00457_9 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_econedurev_2018_04_005 crossref_primary_10_1128_jmbe_v21i1_2097 crossref_primary_10_1093_scipol_scab024 crossref_primary_10_1016_S0140_6736_19_30031_5 crossref_primary_10_1080_03323315_2022_2093253 crossref_primary_10_1016_S0140_6736_18_32611_4 crossref_primary_10_1080_04353684_2019_1571868 crossref_primary_10_1080_1360144X_2019_1692211 crossref_primary_10_1017_aap_2020_8 crossref_primary_10_1111_spc3_12993 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11211_021_00363_2 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_lindif_2016_10_003 crossref_primary_10_1093_analys_anaa072 crossref_primary_10_1080_00220973_2020_1805717 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cogdev_2024_101435 crossref_primary_10_1119_5_0186665 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2025_1490437 crossref_primary_10_46767_kfp_2016_0028 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_respol_2024_105072 crossref_primary_10_1111_sode_12776 crossref_primary_10_1287_serv_2018_0224 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44007_024_00146_6 crossref_primary_10_1089_jwh_2016_6021 crossref_primary_10_1057_s41307_020_00203_z crossref_primary_10_1080_0047231X_2024_2410756 crossref_primary_10_1080_17501229_2021_1956936 crossref_primary_10_1177_01622439211027648 crossref_primary_10_1126_science_aba7377 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11191_020_00171_1 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11135_025_02110_0 crossref_primary_10_1080_00220485_2023_2254756 crossref_primary_10_1038_s44271_024_00113_5 crossref_primary_10_5465_amp_2018_0144 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00729_023_00220_4 crossref_primary_10_1080_15248372_2018_1483371 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00283_017_9761_7 crossref_primary_10_1093_astrogeo_atw219 crossref_primary_10_1177_19485506211030398 crossref_primary_10_1177_1088868316642141 crossref_primary_10_1111_phc3_12406 crossref_primary_10_3390_su13179832 crossref_primary_10_1007_s40319_024_01536_7 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_respol_2023_104939 crossref_primary_10_1021_acs_jchemed_9b00516 crossref_primary_10_1177_09567976231221534 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0155885 crossref_primary_10_4000_nrt_15739 crossref_primary_10_1080_1047840X_2021_1930764 crossref_primary_10_1111_bjep_12665 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0150194 crossref_primary_10_5209_INFE_58916 crossref_primary_10_1080_09500693_2018_1486522 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_aos_2020_101200 crossref_primary_10_1051_shsconf_202112502007 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_17_010144 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_20_010140 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_024_04669_x crossref_primary_10_1177_23780231231152195 crossref_primary_10_1080_1047840X_2021_1971443 crossref_primary_10_1097_ACM_0000000000001863 crossref_primary_10_3390_socsci7070111 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2019_00011 crossref_primary_10_1080_03637751_2023_2285989 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_4564289 crossref_primary_10_1080_23311886_2024_2367731 crossref_primary_10_1126_science_aaf4372 crossref_primary_10_1080_19345747_2020_1799464 crossref_primary_10_5465_amd_2018_0115 crossref_primary_10_1111_cogs_12637 crossref_primary_10_1177_0361684317720186 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_17_010114 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11199_016_0622_1 crossref_primary_10_1017_S1049096519001239 crossref_primary_10_1063_PT_3_3870 crossref_primary_10_1021_acscentsci_0c00905 crossref_primary_10_1119_1_5008336 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2019_01114 crossref_primary_10_5964_ejop_11915 crossref_primary_10_1080_0047231X_2022_12290557 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00426_019_01285_0 crossref_primary_10_1093_bjsw_bcx140 crossref_primary_10_1017_S1366728924000543 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jecp_2017_03_013 crossref_primary_10_1119_5_0056835 crossref_primary_10_1073_pnas_2100030118 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_17_020138 crossref_primary_10_3390_socsci8020043 crossref_primary_10_1111_theo_12518 crossref_primary_10_5465_amr_2015_0399 crossref_primary_10_1145_3068791 crossref_primary_10_1080_14794802_2024_2435016 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11165_018_9786_8 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_learninstruc_2023_101865 crossref_primary_10_1111_bjdp_12323 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_17_020143 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_wsif_2018_05_003 crossref_primary_10_1002_sce_21551 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10964_020_01293_z crossref_primary_10_1177_2332858416673617 crossref_primary_10_1002_sce_21557 crossref_primary_10_1093_reseval_rvad008 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tics_2022_04_004 crossref_primary_10_3224_gender_v13i1_04 crossref_primary_10_1080_03043797_2025_2467827 crossref_primary_10_1080_14680777_2017_1391308 crossref_primary_10_1177_1477878517734452 crossref_primary_10_1186_s12909_018_1263_6 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10964_020_01345_4 crossref_primary_10_1177_0146167220936480 crossref_primary_10_1146_annurev_psych_032720_043052 crossref_primary_10_1119_5_0145050 crossref_primary_10_1140_epjqt_s40507_025_00313_w crossref_primary_10_1109_TE_2020_3004075 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11199_022_01292_3 crossref_primary_10_1002_pits_22904 crossref_primary_10_1590_s1678_4634201844183907 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_023_00427_6 crossref_primary_10_3389_feduc_2024_1454303 crossref_primary_10_18261_spa_40_3_1 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10672_022_09407_4 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_4114599 crossref_primary_10_1080_13803611_2024_2315283 crossref_primary_10_1111_jasp_12939 crossref_primary_10_1126_science_aaa3781 crossref_primary_10_1080_02134748_2022_2040865 crossref_primary_10_1080_09500693_2021_1900623 crossref_primary_10_1080_02635143_2020_1740668 crossref_primary_10_1177_1475725719836641 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41598_020_73466_6 crossref_primary_10_1080_09500693_2023_2183098 crossref_primary_10_3389_fspas_2023_1071809 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2021_631142 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_023_00416_9 crossref_primary_10_1177_07308884241309616 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10755_021_09574_6 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0281967 crossref_primary_10_1093_biosci_biaa043 crossref_primary_10_1111_mono_12471 crossref_primary_10_1177_01430343231216974 crossref_primary_10_1080_13218719_2018_1485522 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0153857 crossref_primary_10_1007_s41109_019_0214_4 crossref_primary_10_1145_3535510 crossref_primary_10_1002_sce_21598 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tate_2019_102926 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0012217317000956 crossref_primary_10_1093_aesa_saac018 crossref_primary_10_1177_09567976211028984 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2015_00049 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2024_1331460 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci13090899 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11165_017_9670_y crossref_primary_10_1038_ngeo2819 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_15_013102 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jcbs_2019_12_008 crossref_primary_10_1519_SSC_0000000000000401 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10763_022_10272_8 crossref_primary_10_1080_00224545_2021_1921682 crossref_primary_10_1177_1075547020943208 crossref_primary_10_3102_0013189X19890577 crossref_primary_10_1111_hypa_12232 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43545_024_00863_3 crossref_primary_10_15703_kjc_19_4_201808_125 crossref_primary_10_1126_sciadv_aba9221 crossref_primary_10_1109_RITA_2020_3033211 crossref_primary_10_1177_0016986221991160 crossref_primary_10_1111_medu_13633 crossref_primary_10_1108_JARHE_11_2018_0225 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11192_023_04639_z crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jpubeco_2018_09_007 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10869_024_09969_0 crossref_primary_10_1187_cbe_21_12_0343 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2021_102023 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tics_2021_04_006 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43545_021_00098_6 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci12070498 crossref_primary_10_1162_qss_c_00269 crossref_primary_10_1111_cdev_13834 crossref_primary_10_1590_1982_0275202037e180108 crossref_primary_10_1080_0047231X_2024_2389450 crossref_primary_10_1177_0003122417720466 crossref_primary_10_1111_ntwe_12278 crossref_primary_10_1177_0957926520977220 crossref_primary_10_3390_socsci6010014 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00283_015_9577_2 crossref_primary_10_1177_0963721416672463 crossref_primary_10_1080_00220973_2024_2338536 crossref_primary_10_30935_scimath_10948 crossref_primary_10_29333_ejmste_109657 crossref_primary_10_1177_0361684318793848 crossref_primary_10_3390_socsci6010029 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_020_09576_w crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2022_1024017 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2024_1455392 crossref_primary_10_1080_15298868_2019_1609576 crossref_primary_10_1126_sciadv_abd0299 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41539_023_00181_y crossref_primary_10_1111_josp_12451 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_024_10001_9 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_respol_2021_104411 crossref_primary_10_3390_socsci6020055 crossref_primary_10_1017_S1049096517000580 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_biopsycho_2020_107948 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_2845722 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0307222 crossref_primary_10_1111_cdev_13809 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2017_01594 crossref_primary_10_1080_00368555_2020_12293540 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41559_020_1266_7 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3063273 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2015_00235 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10639_024_12669_0 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11031_023_10049_8 crossref_primary_10_1002_tea_21753 crossref_primary_10_1088_1742_6596_1512_1_012006 crossref_primary_10_1111_josl_12489 crossref_primary_10_1146_annurev_psych_122216_011719 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jslw_2025_101193 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_13_020124 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2019_00469 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_econedurev_2016_02_007 crossref_primary_10_1021_acs_jcim_2c00533 crossref_primary_10_1093_aesa_say030 crossref_primary_10_1111_1365_2435_12529 crossref_primary_10_1002_tea_21761 crossref_primary_10_1007_s12115_022_00705_z crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_022_03639_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10763_015_9660_3 crossref_primary_10_1177_03616843241236397 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_2933241 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0293080 crossref_primary_10_7554_eLife_97613_3 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_compedu_2021_104190 crossref_primary_10_1177_1745691620952789 crossref_primary_10_1080_02134748_2020_1721049 crossref_primary_10_1111_mbe_12253 crossref_primary_10_1017_hyp_2020_39 crossref_primary_10_1111_misp_12035 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_econedurev_2019_101921 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11024_020_09408_3 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00223_018_0492_3 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2023_1239944 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jnc_2023_126403 crossref_primary_10_55028_pdres_v10i23_17312 crossref_primary_10_1177_17456916221117159 crossref_primary_10_2200_S00684ED1V01Y201511HCI033 crossref_primary_10_1080_13562517_2025_2449660 crossref_primary_10_1002_tea_21980 crossref_primary_10_1177_15291006231170829 crossref_primary_10_1088_1742_6596_2438_1_012005 crossref_primary_10_1093_sf_soac148 crossref_primary_10_1111_eva_12343 crossref_primary_10_3390_socsci11020074 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2015_01532 crossref_primary_10_5465_amj_2018_0290 crossref_primary_10_1162_qss_a_00218 crossref_primary_10_1089_jwh_2019_8094 crossref_primary_10_3389_frma_2021_594424 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11191_024_00605_0 crossref_primary_10_1002_casp_70036 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jecp_2022_105419 crossref_primary_10_1080_03075079_2024_2341971 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_respol_2025_105207 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_euroecorev_2021_103690 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_13_020133 crossref_primary_10_1525_collabra_274 crossref_primary_10_1177_1948550619841631 crossref_primary_10_1039_D2DD00111J crossref_primary_10_1177_00027642221078510 crossref_primary_10_1080_20445911_2024_2314971 crossref_primary_10_7554_eLife_97613 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_socnet_2022_12_004 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2017_00602 crossref_primary_10_1080_00461520_2017_1396462 crossref_primary_10_1086_718075 crossref_primary_10_1177_2396987319841979 crossref_primary_10_1111_mila_12166 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40594_020_00219_2 crossref_primary_10_1093_ej_ueae052 crossref_primary_10_1093_gbe_evy056 crossref_primary_10_1002_tea_21937 crossref_primary_10_1145_2920173 crossref_primary_10_1073_pnas_1805284115 crossref_primary_10_1026_0049_8637_a000171 crossref_primary_10_1073_pnas_1510159112 crossref_primary_10_1111_meta_12358 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2021_684777 crossref_primary_10_1039_C6RP00252H crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2019_01941 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cedpsych_2022_102116 crossref_primary_10_1126_science_aaa9892 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0170887 crossref_primary_10_1073_pnas_1921320117 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci14101135 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11218_023_09870_3 crossref_primary_10_3102_0002831217740221 crossref_primary_10_1103_PhysRevPhysEducRes_18_010142 crossref_primary_10_3389_froh_2023_1059023 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jsp_2024_101350 crossref_primary_10_1111_jasp_12371 crossref_primary_10_1111_cdev_14043 crossref_primary_10_1080_17477778_2019_1620650 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_learninstruc_2019_101220 crossref_primary_10_1108_OIR_01_2016_0012 crossref_primary_10_26613_esic_1_1_10 crossref_primary_10_1111_meta_12591 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_respol_2018_02_011 crossref_primary_10_1080_10986065_2022_2062641 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41562_024_02100_6 crossref_primary_10_1111_meta_12353 crossref_primary_10_4102_the_v7i0_218 crossref_primary_10_1002_jcpy_1093 crossref_primary_10_1021_acs_accounts_2c00797 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10763_023_10436_0 crossref_primary_10_3390_ijms25179598 crossref_primary_10_3390_educsci14080836 crossref_primary_10_18261_iss_1505_7989_2019_03_06 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10956_024_10114_y crossref_primary_10_1038_s41539_023_00190_x crossref_primary_10_1177_07311214211028617 crossref_primary_10_1126_science_aaa9632 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10734_024_01325_8 crossref_primary_10_1002_jcpy_1097 crossref_primary_10_1080_01973533_2020_1734006 crossref_primary_10_1187_cbe_19_02_0038 crossref_primary_10_3389_feduc_2019_00034 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0012217319000374 crossref_primary_10_1027_1864_1105_a000377 crossref_primary_10_1108_JAL_03_2024_0050
Cites_doi	10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 10.1080/00224545.1996.9714021 10.1111/1467-9280.00111 10.2307/j.ctvcm4j72 10.1111/j.1751-5823.2010.00112.x 10.1086/589252 10.1073/pnas.1014871108 10.1177/1529100614541236 10.1126/science.1131100 10.1037/12072-000 10.1016/j.lindif.2007.02.004 10.1080/01621459.1993.10476368 10.7551/mitpress/7235.001.0001 10.1037/0022-3514.74.4.996 10.1023/A:1003953801526 10.1126/science.7604277 10.9783/9780812207811 10.1037/a0016030 10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581 10.1027/1016-9040.12.3.173 10.1006/ceps.1999.1015
ContentType	Journal Article
Copyright	Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science Copyright © 2015, American Association for the Advancement of Science. Copyright © 2015, American Association for the Advancement of Science
Copyright_xml	– notice: Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science – notice: Copyright © 2015, American Association for the Advancement of Science. – notice: Copyright © 2015, American Association for the Advancement of Science
DBID	AAYXX CITATION CGR CUY CVF ECM EIF NPM 7QF 7QG 7QL 7QP 7QQ 7QR 7SC 7SE 7SN 7SP 7SR 7SS 7T7 7TA 7TB 7TK 7TM 7U5 7U9 8BQ 8FD C1K F28 FR3 H8D H8G H94 JG9 JQ2 K9. KR7 L7M L~C L~D M7N P64 RC3 7X8
DOI	10.1126/science.1261375
DatabaseName	CrossRef Medline MEDLINE MEDLINE (Ovid) MEDLINE MEDLINE PubMed Aluminium Industry Abstracts Animal Behavior Abstracts Bacteriology Abstracts (Microbiology B) Calcium & Calcified Tissue Abstracts Ceramic Abstracts Chemoreception Abstracts Computer and Information Systems Abstracts Corrosion Abstracts Ecology Abstracts Electronics & Communications Abstracts Engineered Materials Abstracts Entomology Abstracts (Full archive) Industrial and Applied Microbiology Abstracts (Microbiology A) Materials Business File Mechanical & Transportation Engineering Abstracts Neurosciences Abstracts Nucleic Acids Abstracts Solid State and Superconductivity Abstracts Virology and AIDS Abstracts METADEX Technology Research Database Environmental Sciences and Pollution Management ANTE: Abstracts in New Technology & Engineering Engineering Research Database Aerospace Database Copper Technical Reference Library AIDS and Cancer Research Abstracts Materials Research Database ProQuest Computer Science Collection ProQuest Health & Medical Complete (Alumni) Civil Engineering Abstracts Advanced Technologies Database with Aerospace Computer and Information Systems Abstracts Academic Computer and Information Systems Abstracts Professional Algology Mycology and Protozoology Abstracts (Microbiology C) Biotechnology and BioEngineering Abstracts Genetics Abstracts MEDLINE - Academic
DatabaseTitle	CrossRef MEDLINE Medline Complete MEDLINE with Full Text PubMed MEDLINE (Ovid) Materials Research Database Technology Research Database Computer and Information Systems Abstracts – Academic Mechanical & Transportation Engineering Abstracts Nucleic Acids Abstracts ProQuest Computer Science Collection Computer and Information Systems Abstracts ProQuest Health & Medical Complete (Alumni) Materials Business File Environmental Sciences and Pollution Management Aerospace Database Copper Technical Reference Library Engineered Materials Abstracts Genetics Abstracts Bacteriology Abstracts (Microbiology B) Algology Mycology and Protozoology Abstracts (Microbiology C) AIDS and Cancer Research Abstracts Chemoreception Abstracts Industrial and Applied Microbiology Abstracts (Microbiology A) Advanced Technologies Database with Aerospace ANTE: Abstracts in New Technology & Engineering Civil Engineering Abstracts Aluminium Industry Abstracts Virology and AIDS Abstracts Electronics & Communications Abstracts Ceramic Abstracts Ecology Abstracts Neurosciences Abstracts METADEX Biotechnology and BioEngineering Abstracts Computer and Information Systems Abstracts Professional Entomology Abstracts Animal Behavior Abstracts Solid State and Superconductivity Abstracts Engineering Research Database Calcium & Calcified Tissue Abstracts Corrosion Abstracts MEDLINE - Academic
DatabaseTitleList	Materials Research Database CrossRef Solid State and Superconductivity Abstracts MEDLINE MEDLINE - Academic
Database_xml	– sequence: 1 dbid: NPM name: PubMed url: https://proxy.k.utb.cz/login?url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed sourceTypes: Index Database – sequence: 2 dbid: EIF name: MEDLINE url: https://proxy.k.utb.cz/login?url=https://www.webofscience.com/wos/medline/basic-search sourceTypes: Index Database
DeliveryMethod	fulltext_linktorsrc
Discipline	Sciences (General) Biology Philosophy
EISSN	1095-9203
EndPage	265
ExternalDocumentID	3559534401 25593183 10_1126_science_1261375 24745875
Genre	Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Journal Article Feature
GroupedDBID	--- --Z -DZ -ET -~X .-4 ..I .55 .DC 08G 0R~ 0WA 123 18M 2FS 2KS 2WC 2XV 34G 36B 39C 3R3 4.4 53G 5RE 66. 6OB 6TJ 7X2 7~K 85S 8F7 AABCJ AACGO AAIKC AAJYS AAMNW AANCE AAWTO AAYJJ ABBHK ABDBF ABDEX ABDQB ABEFU ABIVO ABJNI ABOCM ABPLY ABPMR ABPPZ ABQIJ ABTLG ABWJO ABXSQ ABZEH ACBEA ACBEC ACGFO ACGFS ACGOD ACHIC ACIWK ACMJI ACNCT ACPRK ACQOY ACUHS ADDRP ADMHC ADQXQ ADUKH ADULT ADXHL AEGBM AENEX AETEA AEUPB AEXZC AFBNE AFCHL AFFDN AFFNX AFHKK AFQFN AFRAH AGFXO AGNAY AGSOS AHMBA AIDAL AIDUJ AJGZS ALIPV ALMA_UNASSIGNED_HOLDINGS ALSLI AQVQM ASPBG AVWKF BKF BLC C45 C51 CS3 DB2 DCCCD DU5 EBS EJD EMOBN F5P FA8 FEDTE HZ~ I.T IAO IEA IGS IH2 IHR INH INR IOF IOV IPO IPSME IPY ISE J9C JAAYA JBMMH JCF JENOY JHFFW JKQEH JLS JLXEF JPM JSG JST KCC L7B LSO LU7 M0P MQT MVM N9A NEJ NHB O9- OCB OFXIZ OGEVE OMK OVD P-O P2P PQQKQ PZZ QJJ QS- RHI RXW SA0 SC5 SJN TAE TEORI TN5 TWZ UBW UCV UHB UKR UMD UNMZH UQL USG VVN WH7 WI4 X7M XJF XZL Y6R YK4 YKV YNT YOJ YR2 YR5 YRY YSQ YV5 YWH YYP YYQ YZZ ZCA ZE2 ~02 ~G0 ~KM ~ZZ AAYXX ABCQX CITATION K-O CGR CUY CVF ECM EIF NPM 7QF 7QG 7QL 7QP 7QQ 7QR 7SC 7SE 7SN 7SP 7SR 7SS 7T7 7TA 7TB 7TK 7TM 7U5 7U9 8BQ 8FD C1K F28 FR3 H8D H8G H94 JG9 JQ2 K9. KR7 L7M L~C L~D M7N P64 RC3 7X8
ID	FETCH-LOGICAL-c446t-7575b8ea1341c949c6a5061f96abdfa97f4f171fd4f10deea2341ff5dfb363a73
ISSN	0036-8075 1095-9203
IngestDate	Tue Aug 05 10:01:35 EDT 2025 Fri Jul 11 16:34:22 EDT 2025 Fri Jul 25 19:13:43 EDT 2025 Mon Jul 21 06:03:10 EDT 2025 Thu Apr 24 22:55:11 EDT 2025 Tue Jul 01 04:10:27 EDT 2025 Thu Jul 03 22:31:16 EDT 2025
IsPeerReviewed	true
IsScholarly	true
Issue	6219
Language	English
License	http://www.sciencemag.org/about/science-licenses-journal-article-reuse Copyright © 2015, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
LinkModel	OpenURL
MergedId	FETCHMERGED-LOGICAL-c446t-7575b8ea1341c949c6a5061f96abdfa97f4f171fd4f10deea2341ff5dfb363a73
Notes	SourceType-Scholarly Journals-1 ObjectType-Feature-1 content type line 14 ObjectType-Article-1 ObjectType-Feature-2 content type line 23
PMID	25593183
PQID	1645896664
PQPubID	1256
PageCount	4
ParticipantIDs	proquest_miscellaneous_1904204204 proquest_miscellaneous_1652409069 proquest_journals_1645896664 pubmed_primary_25593183 crossref_citationtrail_10_1126_science_1261375 crossref_primary_10_1126_science_1261375 jstor_primary_24745875
ProviderPackageCode	CITATION AAYXX
PublicationCentury	2000
PublicationDate	20150116 2015-01-16 2015-Jan-16
PublicationDateYYYYMMDD	2015-01-16
PublicationDate_xml	– month: 1 year: 2015 text: 20150116 day: 16
PublicationDecade	2010
PublicationPlace	United States
PublicationPlace_xml	– name: United States – name: Washington
PublicationTitle	Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
PublicationTitleAlternate	Science
PublicationYear	2015
Publisher	American Association for the Advancement of Science The American Association for the Advancement of Science
Publisher_xml	– name: American Association for the Advancement of Science – name: The American Association for the Advancement of Science
References	e_1_3_2_26_2 e_1_3_2_27_2 e_1_3_2_28_2 e_1_3_2_20_2 e_1_3_2_21_2 e_1_3_2_22_2 e_1_3_2_23_2 e_1_3_2_24_2 e_1_3_2_25_2 e_1_3_2_9_2 e_1_3_2_15_2 e_1_3_2_8_2 e_1_3_2_16_2 e_1_3_2_7_2 e_1_3_2_17_2 e_1_3_2_6_2 e_1_3_2_18_2 e_1_3_2_19_2 e_1_3_2_10_2 e_1_3_2_5_2 e_1_3_2_11_2 e_1_3_2_4_2 e_1_3_2_12_2 e_1_3_2_3_2 e_1_3_2_13_2 e_1_3_2_2_2 e_1_3_2_14_2 25593174 - Science. 2015 Jan 16;347(6219):234-5 26206926 - Science. 2015 Jul 24;349(6246):391 26206927 - Science. 2015 Jul 24;349(6246):391
References_xml	– ident: e_1_3_2_25_2 doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 – ident: e_1_3_2_2_2 doi: 10.1080/00224545.1996.9714021 – ident: e_1_3_2_26_2 doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00111 – ident: e_1_3_2_6_2 – ident: e_1_3_2_27_2 doi: 10.2307/j.ctvcm4j72 – ident: e_1_3_2_22_2 doi: 10.1111/j.1751-5823.2010.00112.x – ident: e_1_3_2_18_2 doi: 10.1086/589252 – ident: e_1_3_2_7_2 doi: 10.1073/pnas.1014871108 – ident: e_1_3_2_9_2 doi: 10.1177/1529100614541236 – ident: e_1_3_2_12_2 doi: 10.1126/science.1131100 – ident: e_1_3_2_15_2 doi: 10.1037/12072-000 – ident: e_1_3_2_19_2 doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2007.02.004 – ident: e_1_3_2_23_2 doi: 10.1080/01621459.1993.10476368 – ident: e_1_3_2_11_2 doi: 10.7551/mitpress/7235.001.0001 – ident: e_1_3_2_8_2 – ident: e_1_3_2_20_2 doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.4.996 – ident: e_1_3_2_28_2 – ident: e_1_3_2_5_2 doi: 10.1023/A:1003953801526 – ident: e_1_3_2_16_2 doi: 10.1126/science.7604277 – ident: e_1_3_2_24_2 – ident: e_1_3_2_4_2 doi: 10.9783/9780812207811 – ident: e_1_3_2_14_2 doi: 10.1037/a0016030 – ident: e_1_3_2_10_2 – ident: e_1_3_2_17_2 doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581 – ident: e_1_3_2_3_2 doi: 10.1027/1016-9040.12.3.173 – ident: e_1_3_2_13_2 doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 – ident: e_1_3_2_21_2 – reference: 26206926 - Science. 2015 Jul 24;349(6246):391 – reference: 25593174 - Science. 2015 Jan 16;347(6219):234-5 – reference: 26206927 - Science. 2015 Jul 24;349(6246):391
SSID	ssj0009593
Score	2.648416
Snippet	The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women's underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D.... Some scientific disciplines have lower percentages of women in academia than others. Leslie et al. hypothesized that general attitudes about the discipline... Some scientific disciplines have lower percentages of women in academia than others. Leslie et al. hypothesized that general attitudes about the discipline... Women's participation and attitudes to talentSome scientific disciplines have lower percentages of women in academia than others. Leslie et al. hypothesized...
SourceID	proquest pubmed crossref jstor
SourceType	Aggregation Database Index Database Enrichment Source Publisher
StartPage	262
SubjectTerms	Achievement African Americans Aptitude Attitude Career Choice Culture Disproportionate Representation Education, Graduate Faculty Female Females Gender Discrimination Gender equity Humans Hypotheses Intellectual Disciplines Intelligence Male Molecular biology Natural Science Disciplines - manpower Philosophy Raw Representations Scientists Sex Characteristics Sexism Social Sciences - manpower Stereotyping Students Surveys and Questionnaires Talent Women
Title	Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines
URI	https://www.jstor.org/stable/24745875 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25593183 https://www.proquest.com/docview/1645896664 https://www.proquest.com/docview/1652409069 https://www.proquest.com/docview/1904204204
Volume	347
hasFullText	1
inHoldings	1
isFullTextHit
isPrint
link	http://utb.summon.serialssolutions.com/2.0.0/link/0/eLvHCXMwnV1bb9MwFLaqTki8IDYYFAYyEg9DKFUujhM_dhtVGduERCftLYodW6oE7dSmD-P38kM4ji91BZ1gUpW0sdNYPp_PxTkXhN4rJkrAAY1qVvKIKMUjBoZIVKaSigQkjuhiqy6v6OSanN_kN73er8Brad3yofj517iSh1AVrgFddZTsf1DW_ylcgO9AXzgCheH4TzTWeYpFu3Fm48tu90SvVR0btgT9UpdI1ukiGp0g19a2Wn2sO-EIJ-sc72NzrUeh1Vbdwgct1L_ZCejpXRRHxpHA-RXY24JNhm7fOTq3frUXEpRbD6jT2Y_bWT333pUzjwF5Z_B0qeuJzlq_cT1eSukcMk3R6XDvItFugpEJrRy66LcHDD_k5zadspFmhoXHuvpkGmchj89MWk8LZurYtGXaRh78KUyC8pdyCL-SzD0pTNs9GX2rvp6Nq4vPV1-2W42aADZbnhGigwz3UjBm0j7aG52cnYx3Joe2KaiC4C739C3tyTjQ7jaNOhVp-hQ9sbYNHhmg7qOenB-gR6ba6d0B2rcTu8LHNtn5h2doGmIYLxTeYBg7DGODYbyFYWwwjB2GcYDh5-h6_Gl6OolspY8IWAFtowKMBl7KWmcXFIwwQescFE3FaM0bVbNCEZUUiWrgFDdS1il0VCpvFM9oVhfZIerPF3P5EmFoVblIOFUw501CeB7zJqFNRkqW8kYM0NDNYCVsGnxdjeV71ZnDKa3slFd2ygfo2N9wazLA7O562JHE90tJQfJSNxw5GlWWf6yqhEIbo5SSAXrnm4G761d2sCAXa90nB5WbxZTd04eB4O0-A_TC0H8zAACfltqv7h_Aa_R4szyPUL9druUbULZb_tZi9Tebj9sA
linkProvider	EBSCOhost
openUrl	ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsummon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Expectations+of+brilliance+underlie+gender+distributions+across+academic+disciplines&rft.jtitle=Science+%28American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science%29&rft.au=Sarah-Jane%2C+Leslie&rft.au=Cimpian%2C+Andrei&rft.au=Meyer%2C+Meredith&rft.au=Freeland%2C+Edward&rft.date=2015-01-16&rft.pub=The+American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft.eissn=1095-9203&rft.volume=347&rft.issue=6219&rft.spage=262&rft_id=info:doi/10.1126%2Fscience.1261375&rft.externalDBID=HAS_PDF_LINK&rft.externalDocID=3559534401
thumbnail_l	http://covers-cdn.summon.serialssolutions.com/index.aspx?isbn=/lc.gif&issn=0036-8075&client=summon
thumbnail_m	http://covers-cdn.summon.serialssolutions.com/index.aspx?isbn=/mc.gif&issn=0036-8075&client=summon
thumbnail_s	http://covers-cdn.summon.serialssolutions.com/index.aspx?isbn=/sc.gif&issn=0036-8075&client=summon