Disentangling direct and indirect effects of forest structure on biodiversity: Bottom‐up and top‐down effects between forestry, bats and their insect prey
Timber‐oriented forest management profoundly alters forest structure and composition, with complex effects on associated biodiversity. However, while species' responses to forest management and resulting structural characteristics have been the subject of numerous studies, direct and indirect e...
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Published in | The Journal of applied ecology Vol. 62; no. 1; pp. 93 - 105 |
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Main Authors | , , , , , , , , , , , |
Format | Journal Article |
Language | English |
Published |
Oxford
Blackwell Publishing Ltd
01.01.2025
|
Subjects | |
Online Access | Get full text |
ISSN | 0021-8901 1365-2664 |
DOI | 10.1111/1365-2664.14822 |
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Abstract | Timber‐oriented forest management profoundly alters forest structure and composition, with complex effects on associated biodiversity. However, while species' responses to forest management and resulting structural characteristics have been the subject of numerous studies, direct and indirect effects that cascade through trophic levels are rarely disentangled. As insectivorous bats are particularly sensitive to changes in forest structure, that shape their available flight space, we investigated how forest structure, composition and management also indirectly modify their habitats, for example, by affecting important insect prey groups.
We used structural equation models (SEMs) to test bat responses to forest composition, structure (forest heterogeneity, old‐growth attributes) and management intensity, quantifying direct and indirect prey‐mediated effects. For that, three bat guilds—short‐ (SRE), mid‐ (MRE) and long‐range echolocating (LRE) bats—and their prey insects (moths and ground beetles) were analysed from 64 sites in the Black Forest, Germany.
We found guild‐specific effects on bats: While the structural heterogeneity of forests directly influenced the activity of bat guilds, the main influence of forest management, composition and structure was mediated through their prey‐groups.
SRE activity responded to moths and LRE activity was associated with ground beetles, with positive effects of the insect groups' abundance, but negative effects of the same group's species richness. In addition, the SEM approach revealed a negative top‐down relationship between MRE activities and moths, suggesting predation or avoidance behaviour of moths.
While forest management directly or indirectly increased prey insect abundance, it negatively affected the availability of roosting structures for bats.
Synthesis and applications. The results highlight the indirect and positive effects of forest management on bats and support the important role of bats in insect regulation within continuous cover forests. Although forest management created small gaps that improved foraging habitats for most bats, it compromised the roosting functionality for bats. The ‘close‐to‐nature forestry’ currently prevalent in Europe mainly promotes continuous‐cover forests in mid‐successional stages. Expanding the forest management portfolio towards open and old‐growth forests would increase roosting opportunities and provide complementary foraging habitats for different bat species, while promoting high biodiversity in managed forest landscapes.
Zusammenfassung
Die in Europa weit verbreitete Naturnahe Waldwirtschaft verändert sowohl die Struktur als auch die Zusammensetzung der Wälder und hat weitreichende Auswirkungen auf die Biodiversität. Während viele Studien die direkten Auswirkungen der Bewirtschaftung und die daraus resultierenden strukturellen Merkmale von Wäldern untersuchen, werden die direkten und indirekten Effekte auf Arten, etwa entlang der Nahrungskette, jedoch nur selten differenziert analysiert. Da Fledermäuse sehr empfindlich auf Veränderungen der Waldstruktur reagieren, haben wir untersucht, wie sich die Waldstruktur, ‐zusammensetzung und ‐bewirtschaftung indirekt über den Einfluss auf wichtige Insektengruppen auf ihren Lebensraum auswirken.
Mit Strukturgleichungsmodellen (SEM) haben wir die Reaktionen von Fledermäusen auf die Waldzusammensetzung, die Struktur (Waldheterogenität, Merkmale alter Wälder) und die Bewirtschaftungsintensität untersucht und die direkten sowie indirekten Auswirkungen, die durch Beuteinsekten vermittelt werden, quantifiziert. Dazu wurde die Aktivität von drei Fledermausgilden – nah an Waldstrukturen fliegende Fledermäuse (short‐range echolocators = SRE), in halboffenen Lufträumen jagende Fledermäuse (mid‐range echolocators = MRE) und im offenen Luftraum jagende Fledermäuse (long‐range echolocators = LRE) – sowie die Häufigkeit und Vielfalt von Nachtfaltern und Laufkäfern auf 64 Waldstandorten im Schwarzwald untersucht.
Die Analysen zeigten gilden‐spezifische Auswirkungen der Waldstruktur auf die Fledermausaktivität: Während die strukturelle Heterogenität der Waldbestände einen direkten Einfluss auf die Aktivität der Fledermausgilden hatte, wirkte sich die Waldbewirtschaftung, ‐zusammensetzung und ‐struktur vor allem indirekt, über die Verfügbarkeit von Beuteinsekten, auf diese aus.
Die SRE‐Aktivität reagierte auf Nachtfalter, während die LRE‐Aktivität auf Laufkäfer ansprach. Dabei nahm die Fledermausaktivität mit der Häufigkeit der Insektengruppen zu, jedoch mit deren Artenvielfalt ab. Darüber hinaus zeigte das SEM einen negativen Einfluss der MRE‐Aktivität auf Nachtfalter, was auf Prädation oder Vermeidungsverhalten dieser hindeutet.
Die Waldbewirtschaftung erhöhte sowohl direkt oder indirekt die Häufigkeit von Beuteinsekten, führte jedoch zu einer Verringerung der Verfügbarkeit von Baumquartieren für Fledermäuse.
Synthese und Anwendung. Die Ergebnisse unterstreichen die Rolle der Fledermäuse bei der Insektenregulierung in Wäldern und zeigen sowohl indirekte als auch teilweise positive Auswirkungen der Naturnahen Waldwirtschaft auf Fledermäuse. Kleine Lücken, die durch die Waldbewirtschaftung entstehen, können die Jagdhabitate für viele Fledermausarten verbessern. Gleichzeitig führt die Bewirtschaftung zu einer geringeren Verfügbarkeit von Baumquartieren. Da die Bewirtschaftung Wälder mit hohem Kronenschluss und mittleren Sukzessionsstadien fördert, könnte eine Ausweitung dieser hin zu älteren, aber auch offeneren Wäldern sowohl die Verfügbarkeit von Quartieren erhöhen als auch komplementäre Jagdhabitate für verschiedene Fledermausarten schaffen. Eine solche Diversifizierung des Bewirtschaftungsportfolios könnte einen bedeutenden Beitrag zum Erhalt der Biodiversität in bewirtschafteten Waldlandschaften leisten.
Using structural equation modeling, our research uncovers the complex impacts of forest management on bats and insects, revealing both top‐down and bottom‐up effects. We found that forest management practices and structural characteristics shape bat guild activity both directly and indirectly by altering insect prey abundance and diversity. Short‐range echolocating (SRE) bats responded positively to moth abundance, while long‐range echolocating (LRE) bats were associated with ground beetle availability. Notably, mid‐range echolocating (MRE) bats exhibited a top‐down influence on moth populations, suggesting predation or moth avoidance behavior. While forest management increased prey insect abundance and site accessibility for foraging bats, it simultaneously reduced roost availability. |
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AbstractList | Timber‐oriented forest management profoundly alters forest structure and composition, with complex effects on associated biodiversity. However, while species' responses to forest management and resulting structural characteristics have been the subject of numerous studies, direct and indirect effects that cascade through trophic levels are rarely disentangled. As insectivorous bats are particularly sensitive to changes in forest structure, that shape their available flight space, we investigated how forest structure, composition and management also indirectly modify their habitats, for example, by affecting important insect prey groups. We used structural equation models (SEMs) to test bat responses to forest composition, structure (forest heterogeneity, old‐growth attributes) and management intensity, quantifying direct and indirect prey‐mediated effects. For that, three bat guilds—short‐ (SRE), mid‐ (MRE) and long‐range echolocating (LRE) bats—and their prey insects (moths and ground beetles) were analysed from 64 sites in the Black Forest, Germany. We found guild‐specific effects on bats: While the structural heterogeneity of forests directly influenced the activity of bat guilds, the main influence of forest management, composition and structure was mediated through their prey‐groups. SRE activity responded to moths and LRE activity was associated with ground beetles, with positive effects of the insect groups' abundance, but negative effects of the same group's species richness. In addition, the SEM approach revealed a negative top‐down relationship between MRE activities and moths, suggesting predation or avoidance behaviour of moths. While forest management directly or indirectly increased prey insect abundance, it negatively affected the availability of roosting structures for bats. Synthesis and applications. The results highlight the indirect and positive effects of forest management on bats and support the important role of bats in insect regulation within continuous cover forests. Although forest management created small gaps that improved foraging habitats for most bats, it compromised the roosting functionality for bats. The ‘close‐to‐nature forestry’ currently prevalent in Europe mainly promotes continuous‐cover forests in mid‐successional stages. Expanding the forest management portfolio towards open and old‐growth forests would increase roosting opportunities and provide complementary foraging habitats for different bat species, while promoting high biodiversity in managed forest landscapes. Timber‐oriented forest management profoundly alters forest structure and composition, with complex effects on associated biodiversity. However, while species' responses to forest management and resulting structural characteristics have been the subject of numerous studies, direct and indirect effects that cascade through trophic levels are rarely disentangled. As insectivorous bats are particularly sensitive to changes in forest structure, that shape their available flight space, we investigated how forest structure, composition and management also indirectly modify their habitats, for example, by affecting important insect prey groups. We used structural equation models (SEMs) to test bat responses to forest composition, structure (forest heterogeneity, old‐growth attributes) and management intensity, quantifying direct and indirect prey‐mediated effects. For that, three bat guilds—short‐ (SRE), mid‐ (MRE) and long‐range echolocating (LRE) bats—and their prey insects (moths and ground beetles) were analysed from 64 sites in the Black Forest, Germany. We found guild‐specific effects on bats: While the structural heterogeneity of forests directly influenced the activity of bat guilds, the main influence of forest management, composition and structure was mediated through their prey‐groups. SRE activity responded to moths and LRE activity was associated with ground beetles, with positive effects of the insect groups' abundance, but negative effects of the same group's species richness. In addition, the SEM approach revealed a negative top‐down relationship between MRE activities and moths, suggesting predation or avoidance behaviour of moths. While forest management directly or indirectly increased prey insect abundance, it negatively affected the availability of roosting structures for bats. Synthesis and applications. The results highlight the indirect and positive effects of forest management on bats and support the important role of bats in insect regulation within continuous cover forests. Although forest management created small gaps that improved foraging habitats for most bats, it compromised the roosting functionality for bats. The ‘close‐to‐nature forestry’ currently prevalent in Europe mainly promotes continuous‐cover forests in mid‐successional stages. Expanding the forest management portfolio towards open and old‐growth forests would increase roosting opportunities and provide complementary foraging habitats for different bat species, while promoting high biodiversity in managed forest landscapes. Zusammenfassung Die in Europa weit verbreitete Naturnahe Waldwirtschaft verändert sowohl die Struktur als auch die Zusammensetzung der Wälder und hat weitreichende Auswirkungen auf die Biodiversität. Während viele Studien die direkten Auswirkungen der Bewirtschaftung und die daraus resultierenden strukturellen Merkmale von Wäldern untersuchen, werden die direkten und indirekten Effekte auf Arten, etwa entlang der Nahrungskette, jedoch nur selten differenziert analysiert. Da Fledermäuse sehr empfindlich auf Veränderungen der Waldstruktur reagieren, haben wir untersucht, wie sich die Waldstruktur, ‐zusammensetzung und ‐bewirtschaftung indirekt über den Einfluss auf wichtige Insektengruppen auf ihren Lebensraum auswirken. Mit Strukturgleichungsmodellen (SEM) haben wir die Reaktionen von Fledermäusen auf die Waldzusammensetzung, die Struktur (Waldheterogenität, Merkmale alter Wälder) und die Bewirtschaftungsintensität untersucht und die direkten sowie indirekten Auswirkungen, die durch Beuteinsekten vermittelt werden, quantifiziert. Dazu wurde die Aktivität von drei Fledermausgilden – nah an Waldstrukturen fliegende Fledermäuse (short‐range echolocators = SRE), in halboffenen Lufträumen jagende Fledermäuse (mid‐range echolocators = MRE) und im offenen Luftraum jagende Fledermäuse (long‐range echolocators = LRE) – sowie die Häufigkeit und Vielfalt von Nachtfaltern und Laufkäfern auf 64 Waldstandorten im Schwarzwald untersucht. Die Analysen zeigten gilden‐spezifische Auswirkungen der Waldstruktur auf die Fledermausaktivität: Während die strukturelle Heterogenität der Waldbestände einen direkten Einfluss auf die Aktivität der Fledermausgilden hatte, wirkte sich die Waldbewirtschaftung, ‐zusammensetzung und ‐struktur vor allem indirekt, über die Verfügbarkeit von Beuteinsekten, auf diese aus. Die SRE‐Aktivität reagierte auf Nachtfalter, während die LRE‐Aktivität auf Laufkäfer ansprach. Dabei nahm die Fledermausaktivität mit der Häufigkeit der Insektengruppen zu, jedoch mit deren Artenvielfalt ab. Darüber hinaus zeigte das SEM einen negativen Einfluss der MRE‐Aktivität auf Nachtfalter, was auf Prädation oder Vermeidungsverhalten dieser hindeutet. Die Waldbewirtschaftung erhöhte sowohl direkt oder indirekt die Häufigkeit von Beuteinsekten, führte jedoch zu einer Verringerung der Verfügbarkeit von Baumquartieren für Fledermäuse. Synthese und Anwendung. Die Ergebnisse unterstreichen die Rolle der Fledermäuse bei der Insektenregulierung in Wäldern und zeigen sowohl indirekte als auch teilweise positive Auswirkungen der Naturnahen Waldwirtschaft auf Fledermäuse. Kleine Lücken, die durch die Waldbewirtschaftung entstehen, können die Jagdhabitate für viele Fledermausarten verbessern. Gleichzeitig führt die Bewirtschaftung zu einer geringeren Verfügbarkeit von Baumquartieren. Da die Bewirtschaftung Wälder mit hohem Kronenschluss und mittleren Sukzessionsstadien fördert, könnte eine Ausweitung dieser hin zu älteren, aber auch offeneren Wäldern sowohl die Verfügbarkeit von Quartieren erhöhen als auch komplementäre Jagdhabitate für verschiedene Fledermausarten schaffen. Eine solche Diversifizierung des Bewirtschaftungsportfolios könnte einen bedeutenden Beitrag zum Erhalt der Biodiversität in bewirtschafteten Waldlandschaften leisten. Using structural equation modeling, our research uncovers the complex impacts of forest management on bats and insects, revealing both top‐down and bottom‐up effects. We found that forest management practices and structural characteristics shape bat guild activity both directly and indirectly by altering insect prey abundance and diversity. Short‐range echolocating (SRE) bats responded positively to moth abundance, while long‐range echolocating (LRE) bats were associated with ground beetle availability. Notably, mid‐range echolocating (MRE) bats exhibited a top‐down influence on moth populations, suggesting predation or moth avoidance behavior. While forest management increased prey insect abundance and site accessibility for foraging bats, it simultaneously reduced roost availability. Timber‐oriented forest management profoundly alters forest structure and composition, with complex effects on associated biodiversity. However, while species' responses to forest management and resulting structural characteristics have been the subject of numerous studies, direct and indirect effects that cascade through trophic levels are rarely disentangled. As insectivorous bats are particularly sensitive to changes in forest structure, that shape their available flight space, we investigated how forest structure, composition and management also indirectly modify their habitats, for example, by affecting important insect prey groups. We used structural equation models (SEMs) to test bat responses to forest composition, structure (forest heterogeneity, old‐growth attributes) and management intensity, quantifying direct and indirect prey‐mediated effects. For that, three bat guilds—short‐ (SRE), mid‐ (MRE) and long‐range echolocating (LRE) bats—and their prey insects (moths and ground beetles) were analysed from 64 sites in the Black Forest, Germany. We found guild‐specific effects on bats: While the structural heterogeneity of forests directly influenced the activity of bat guilds, the main influence of forest management, composition and structure was mediated through their prey‐groups. SRE activity responded to moths and LRE activity was associated with ground beetles, with positive effects of the insect groups' abundance, but negative effects of the same group's species richness. In addition, the SEM approach revealed a negative top‐down relationship between MRE activities and moths, suggesting predation or avoidance behaviour of moths. While forest management directly or indirectly increased prey insect abundance, it negatively affected the availability of roosting structures for bats. Synthesis and applications. The results highlight the indirect and positive effects of forest management on bats and support the important role of bats in insect regulation within continuous cover forests. Although forest management created small gaps that improved foraging habitats for most bats, it compromised the roosting functionality for bats. The ‘close‐to‐nature forestry’ currently prevalent in Europe mainly promotes continuous‐cover forests in mid‐successional stages. Expanding the forest management portfolio towards open and old‐growth forests would increase roosting opportunities and provide complementary foraging habitats for different bat species, while promoting high biodiversity in managed forest landscapes. Die in Europa weit verbreitete Naturnahe Waldwirtschaft verändert sowohl die Struktur als auch die Zusammensetzung der Wälder und hat weitreichende Auswirkungen auf die Biodiversität. Während viele Studien die direkten Auswirkungen der Bewirtschaftung und die daraus resultierenden strukturellen Merkmale von Wäldern untersuchen, werden die direkten und indirekten Effekte auf Arten, etwa entlang der Nahrungskette, jedoch nur selten differenziert analysiert. Da Fledermäuse sehr empfindlich auf Veränderungen der Waldstruktur reagieren, haben wir untersucht, wie sich die Waldstruktur, ‐zusammensetzung und ‐bewirtschaftung indirekt über den Einfluss auf wichtige Insektengruppen auf ihren Lebensraum auswirken. Mit Strukturgleichungsmodellen (SEM) haben wir die Reaktionen von Fledermäusen auf die Waldzusammensetzung, die Struktur (Waldheterogenität, Merkmale alter Wälder) und die Bewirtschaftungsintensität untersucht und die direkten sowie indirekten Auswirkungen, die durch Beuteinsekten vermittelt werden, quantifiziert. Dazu wurde die Aktivität von drei Fledermausgilden – nah an Waldstrukturen fliegende Fledermäuse (short‐range echolocators = SRE), in halboffenen Lufträumen jagende Fledermäuse (mid‐range echolocators = MRE) und im offenen Luftraum jagende Fledermäuse (long‐range echolocators = LRE) – sowie die Häufigkeit und Vielfalt von Nachtfaltern und Laufkäfern auf 64 Waldstandorten im Schwarzwald untersucht. Die Analysen zeigten gilden‐spezifische Auswirkungen der Waldstruktur auf die Fledermausaktivität: Während die strukturelle Heterogenität der Waldbestände einen direkten Einfluss auf die Aktivität der Fledermausgilden hatte, wirkte sich die Waldbewirtschaftung, ‐zusammensetzung und ‐struktur vor allem indirekt, über die Verfügbarkeit von Beuteinsekten, auf diese aus. Die SRE‐Aktivität reagierte auf Nachtfalter, während die LRE‐Aktivität auf Laufkäfer ansprach. Dabei nahm die Fledermausaktivität mit der Häufigkeit der Insektengruppen zu, jedoch mit deren Artenvielfalt ab. Darüber hinaus zeigte das SEM einen negativen Einfluss der MRE‐Aktivität auf Nachtfalter, was auf Prädation oder Vermeidungsverhalten dieser hindeutet. Die Waldbewirtschaftung erhöhte sowohl direkt oder indirekt die Häufigkeit von Beuteinsekten, führte jedoch zu einer Verringerung der Verfügbarkeit von Baumquartieren für Fledermäuse. Synthese und Anwendung . Die Ergebnisse unterstreichen die Rolle der Fledermäuse bei der Insektenregulierung in Wäldern und zeigen sowohl indirekte als auch teilweise positive Auswirkungen der Naturnahen Waldwirtschaft auf Fledermäuse. Kleine Lücken, die durch die Waldbewirtschaftung entstehen, können die Jagdhabitate für viele Fledermausarten verbessern. Gleichzeitig führt die Bewirtschaftung zu einer geringeren Verfügbarkeit von Baumquartieren. Da die Bewirtschaftung Wälder mit hohem Kronenschluss und mittleren Sukzessionsstadien fördert, könnte eine Ausweitung dieser hin zu älteren, aber auch offeneren Wäldern sowohl die Verfügbarkeit von Quartieren erhöhen als auch komplementäre Jagdhabitate für verschiedene Fledermausarten schaffen. Eine solche Diversifizierung des Bewirtschaftungsportfolios könnte einen bedeutenden Beitrag zum Erhalt der Biodiversität in bewirtschafteten Waldlandschaften leisten. |
Author | Storch, Ilse Liu, Xiang Denter, Martin Hendel, Anna‐Lena Klein, Alexandra M. Douma, Jacob C. Pereira, João M. C. Spînu, Andreea P. Braunisch, Veronika Klingenfuß, Sara Frey, Julian Ruppert, Laura |
Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: Anna‐Lena orcidid: 0000-0003-0282-9931 surname: Hendel fullname: Hendel, Anna‐Lena email: anna‐lena.hendel@wildlife.uni‐freiburg.de organization: Forest Research Institute of Baden‐Wuerttemberg – sequence: 2 givenname: Jacob C. orcidid: 0000-0002-8779-838X surname: Douma fullname: Douma, Jacob C. organization: Wageningen University – sequence: 3 givenname: Sara orcidid: 0009-0007-1964-5377 surname: Klingenfuß fullname: Klingenfuß, Sara organization: University of Freiburg – sequence: 4 givenname: João M. C. orcidid: 0000-0002-3476-1655 surname: Pereira fullname: Pereira, João M. C. organization: University of Freiburg – sequence: 5 givenname: Laura orcidid: 0000-0003-0157-2417 surname: Ruppert fullname: Ruppert, Laura organization: University of Freiburg – sequence: 6 givenname: Andreea P. orcidid: 0000-0003-0445-0298 surname: Spînu fullname: Spînu, Andreea P. organization: University of Freiburg – sequence: 7 givenname: Julian orcidid: 0000-0001-7895-702X surname: Frey fullname: Frey, Julian organization: University of Freiburg – sequence: 8 givenname: Martin orcidid: 0000-0001-5723-8114 surname: Denter fullname: Denter, Martin organization: University of Freiburg – sequence: 9 givenname: Xiang orcidid: 0000-0002-2152-2532 surname: Liu fullname: Liu, Xiang organization: Humboldt‐Universität zu Berlin – sequence: 10 givenname: Ilse orcidid: 0000-0002-3252-2036 surname: Storch fullname: Storch, Ilse organization: University of Freiburg – sequence: 11 givenname: Alexandra M. orcidid: 0000-0003-2139-8575 surname: Klein fullname: Klein, Alexandra M. organization: University of Freiburg – sequence: 12 givenname: Veronika orcidid: 0000-0001-7035-4662 surname: Braunisch fullname: Braunisch, Veronika organization: University of Bern |
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Snippet | Timber‐oriented forest management profoundly alters forest structure and composition, with complex effects on associated biodiversity. However, while species'... |
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SubjectTerms | Abundance applied ecology Availability Avoidance behavior Bats Beetles Biodiversity Butterflies & moths Carabidae Chiroptera Composition effects Echolocation equations flight foraging Foraging habitats forest biodiversity conservation Forest management Forestry Forests Germany Guilds Habitats Heterogeneity insect availability insectivores Insects Predation Prey Shape effects species Species richness structural complexity structural equation models Trophic levels trophic linkages |
Title | Disentangling direct and indirect effects of forest structure on biodiversity: Bottom‐up and top‐down effects between forestry, bats and their insect prey |
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