User- and Speed-Independent Slope Estimation for Lower-Extremity Wearable Robots

• Published in: Annals of biomedical engineering Vol. 52; no. 3; pp. 487 - 497
• Main Authors: Maldonado-Contreras, Jairo Y., Bhakta, Krishan, Camargo, Jonathan, Kunapuli, Pratik, Young, Aaron J.
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: Cham Springer International Publishing 01.03.2024; Springer Nature B.V
• Subjects: Ankle; Biochemistry; Biological and Medical Physics; Biomechanical Phenomena; Biomedical and Life Sciences; Biomedical Engineering and Bioengineering; Biomedicine; Biophysics; Classical Mechanics; Estimators; Exoskeleton; Exoskeletons; Gait; Hip; Humans; Inertial platforms; Knee; Lower Extremity; Machine learning; Mathematical models; Numerical methods; Prostheses; Regression analysis; Regression models; Review; Robot dynamics; Robots; Slopes; Thigh; Walking; Wearable Electronic Devices; Wearable technology; Slope estimation; Intention recognition; Exoskeleton; Prosthesis; Machine learning
• DOI: 10.1007/s10439-023-03391-y
• ISSN: 0090-6964; 1573-9686

Wearable robots can help users traverse unstructured slopes by providing mode-specific hip, knee, and ankle joint assistance. However, generalizing the same assistance pattern across different slopes is not optimal. Control strategies that scale assistance based on slope are expected to improve the feel of the device and improve outcome measures such as decreasing metabolic cost. Prior numerical methods for slope estimation struggled to estimate slopes at variable walking speeds or were limited to a single estimation per gait cycle. This study overcomes these limitations by developing machine-learning methods that yield continuous, user- and speed-independent slope estimators for a variety of wearable robot applications using an able-bodied wearable sensor dataset. In a leave-one-subject-out cross-validation ( N  = 9), four-phase XGBoost regression models were trained on static-slope (fixed-slope) data and evaluated on a novel subject’s static-slope and dynamic-slope (variable-slope) data. Using all available sensors, we achieved an average error of 0.88° and 1.73° mean absolute error (MAE) on static and dynamic slopes, respectively. Ankle prosthesis, knee-ankle prosthesis, and hip exoskeleton sensor suites yielded average errors under 2° MAE on static and dynamic slopes, except for the ankle prosthesis and hip exoskeleton cases on dynamic slopes which yielded an average error of 2.2° and 3.2° MAE, respectively. We found that the thigh inertial measurement unit contributed the most to a reduction in average error. Our findings suggest that reliable slope estimators can be trained using only static-slope data regardless of the type of lower-extremity wearable robot.