A large study on the effect of code obfuscation on the quality of java code
Context : Obfuscation is a common technique used to protect software against malicious reverse engineering. Obfuscators manipulate the source code to make it harder to analyze and more difficult to understand for the attacker. Although different obfuscation algorithms and implementations are availab...
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| Published in | Empirical software engineering : an international journal Vol. 20; no. 6; pp. 1486 - 1524 |
|---|---|
| Main Authors | , , , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
| Published |
New York
Springer US
01.12.2015
Springer Nature B.V |
| Subjects | |
| Online Access | Get full text |
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| Abstract | Context
: Obfuscation is a common technique used to protect software against malicious reverse engineering. Obfuscators manipulate the source code to make it harder to analyze and more difficult to understand for the attacker. Although different obfuscation algorithms and implementations are available, they have never been directly compared in a large scale study.
Aim
: This paper aims at evaluating and quantifying the effect of several different obfuscation implementations (both open source and commercial), to help developers and project managers to decide which algorithms to use.
Method
: In this study we applied 44 obfuscations to 18 subject applications covering a total of 4 millions lines of code. The effectiveness of these source code obfuscations has been measured using 10 code metrics, considering modularity, size and complexity of code.
Results
: Results show that some of the considered obfuscations are effective in making code metrics change substantially from original to obfuscated code, although this change (called potency of the obfuscation) is different on different metrics. In the paper we recommend which obfuscations to select, given the security requirements of the software to be protected. |
|---|---|
| AbstractList | Context: Obfuscation is a common technique used to protect software against malicious reverse engineering. Obfuscators manipulate the source code to make it harder to analyze and more difficult to understand for the attacker. Although different obfuscation algorithms and implementations are available, they have never been directly compared in a large scale study.Aim: This paper aims at evaluating and quantifying the effect of several different obfuscation implementations (both open source and commercial), to help developers and project managers to decide which algorithms to use.Method: In this study we applied 44 obfuscations to 18 subject applications covering a total of 4 millions lines of code. The effectiveness of these source code obfuscations has been measured using 10 code metrics, considering modularity, size and complexity of code.Results: Results show that some of the considered obfuscations are effective in making code metrics change substantially from original to obfuscated code, although this change (called potency of the obfuscation) is different on different metrics. In the paper we recommend which obfuscations to select, given the security requirements of the software to be protected. Context : Obfuscation is a common technique used to protect software against malicious reverse engineering. Obfuscators manipulate the source code to make it harder to analyze and more difficult to understand for the attacker. Although different obfuscation algorithms and implementations are available, they have never been directly compared in a large scale study. Aim : This paper aims at evaluating and quantifying the effect of several different obfuscation implementations (both open source and commercial), to help developers and project managers to decide which algorithms to use. Method : In this study we applied 44 obfuscations to 18 subject applications covering a total of 4 millions lines of code. The effectiveness of these source code obfuscations has been measured using 10 code metrics, considering modularity, size and complexity of code. Results : Results show that some of the considered obfuscations are effective in making code metrics change substantially from original to obfuscated code, although this change (called potency of the obfuscation) is different on different metrics. In the paper we recommend which obfuscations to select, given the security requirements of the software to be protected. |
| Author | Capiluppi, Andrea Boldyreff, Cornelia Ceccato, Mariano Falcarin, Paolo |
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| CitedBy_id | crossref_primary_10_1007_s11390_018_1864_x crossref_primary_10_3390_app14125056 crossref_primary_10_1145_3702314 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jss_2018_12_025 crossref_primary_10_1109_ACCESS_2023_3341224 crossref_primary_10_32628_CSEIT2390376 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10664_019_09738_1 crossref_primary_10_1109_ACCESS_2021_3094517 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_infsof_2018_07_007 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10664_018_9625_6 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cose_2017_10_004 |
| Cites_doi | 10.1109/CSMR.2001.914965 10.1109/MSECP.2003.1219058 10.1109/MS.2011.34 10.1109/TSE.1976.233837 10.1007/978-3-540-30144-8_36 10.1002/spe.371 10.1145/1456362.1456371 10.1016/j.cose.2005.11.002 10.1109/ICPC.2009.5090041 10.1109/32.295895 10.1145/1314257.1314263 10.1007/978-1-4615-4625-2 10.1109/TSE.2002.1027797 10.1007/s10664-013-9248-x 10.1016/0167-4048(93)90054-9 10.1007/3-540-44456-4_7 10.4304/jmm.6.4.329-340 10.1145/948109.948149 |
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| References | Wyseur B (2009) White-box cryptography. Ph.D. thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. http://www.cosic.esat.kuleuven.be/publications/talk-98.pdf Chidamber SR, Kemerer CF (1994) A metrics suite for object oriented design. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 20:476–493. doi:10.1109/32.295895. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=630808.631131 Vasa R, Schneider J.g. (2003) Evolution of cyclomatic complexity in object oriented software. Proceedings of 7th ECOOP workshop on quantitative approaches in ObjectOriented software engineering QAOOSE, vol 03. http://www.it.swin.edu.au/personal/jschneider/Pub/qaoose03.pdf Collberg C, Thomborson C, Low D (1997) A taxonomy of obfuscating transformations. Tech Rep:148. http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/%7Ecollberg/Research/Publications/CollbergThomborsonLow97a/index.html ZengYLiuFLuoXYangCSoftware watermarking through obfuscated interpretation: Implementation nad analysisJ Multimed201164329339 Ceccato M, Penta M, Falcarin P, Ricca F, Torchiano M, Tonella P A family of experiments to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of source code obfuscation techniques. Empirical software engineeringpp. 1-35 (2013). doi:10.1007/s10664-013-9248-x Falcarin P, Collberg C, Atallah M, Jakubowski M (2011) Guest editors’ introduction:software protection. IEEE Softw 28:24–27. doi:10.1109/MS.2011.34. doi:10.1109/MS.2011.34 BasiliVBriandLMeloWA validation of object-oriented design metrics as quality indicators. Software engineeringIEEE Trans19962210751761 Sheskin D (2007) Handbook of parametric and nonparametric statistical procedures (4th Ed.). Chapman & All Collberg CS, Thomborson C (2002) Watermarking, tamper-proofing, and obfuscation: tools for software protection. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 28:735–746. doi:10.1109/TSE.2002.1027797. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=636196.636198 Ceccato M, Di Penta M, Nagra J, Falcarin P, Ricca F, Torchiano M, Tonella P Towards experimental evaluation of code obfuscation techniques. In:proceedings of the 4th ACM workshop on quality of protection, QoP ’08, pp. 39–46. ACM, New York, NY, USA (2008). doi:10.1145/1456362.1456371 Anckaert B, Madou M, De Sutter B, De Bus B, De Bosschere K, Preneel B (2007) Program obfuscation: a quantitative approach. In: Proceedings of the 2007 ACM workshop on quality of protection, QoP ’07,pp. 15-20. ACM, New York, NY, USA. doi:10.1145/1314257.1314263 Ceccato M, Capiluppi A, Falcarin P, Boldyreff C (2013) A large study on the effect of code obfuscation on the quality of java code: Detailed analysis of data. Tech. rep., FBK, TR-FBK-SE-2013-3,. http://se.fbk.eu/sites/se.fbk.eu/files/TR-FBK-SE-2013-3.pdf Kouznetsov P Jad - the fast JAva Decompiler. http://www.kpdus.com/jad.html Jakubowski MH, Saw CW, Venkatesan R (2009) Iterated transformations and quantitative metrics for software protection. In: SECRYPT Udupa SK, Debray SK, Madou M Deobfuscation:reverse engineering obfuscated code. In:proceedings of the 12th Working conference on reverse engineering, pp. 45–54. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, DC, USA (2005). http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1107841.1108171 Wohlin C, Runeson P, Höst M, Ohlsson M, Regnell B, Wesslén A (2000) Experimentation in software engineering - an introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers Cohen FB (1993) Operating system protection through program evolution. Comput Secur 12:565–584. doi:10.1016/0167-4048(93)90054-9. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=179007.179012 Collberg C, Myles G, Huntwork A (2003) Sandmark–a tool for software protection research. IEEE Secur Priv 1:40–49. doi:10.1109/MSECP.2003.1219058. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=939830.939941 Visaggio CA, Pagin GA, Canfora G (2013) An empirical study of metric-based methods to detect obfuscated code. Int J Secur & Appl 7(2):59 Heffner K, Collberg C (2004) The obfuscation executive. In:Information security. Springer, pp 428–440 Jureczko M, Spinellis D (2010) Using object-oriented design metrics to predict software defects, monographs of system dependability, vol. models and methodology of system dependability, pp. 69–81. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wroclawskiej, Wroclaw, Poland McCabe TJ (1976) A complexity measure. IEEE Trans Softw Eng:308–320 Karnick M, MacBride J, McGinnis S, Tang Y, Ramachandran R (2006) A qualitative analysis of java obfuscation. In: proceedings of 10th IASTED international conference on software engineering and applications, Dallas TX, USA Goto H, Mambo M, Matsumura K, Shizuya H (2000) An approach to the objective and quantitative evaluation of tamper-resistant software, In: Proceedings of the third international workshop on information security, ISW ’00. Springer-Verlag, London, UK, pp 82–96. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=648024.744206 Lv Z, Ri S, Uhvhdufk DE, Dw D, Wkh Y, Ri X, Srsxodu W, Zrun QDS, Vkrzhg ZH (2005) On the relationship between cyclomatic complexity and oo ness, 9th ECOOP workshop on quantitative approaches in ObjectOriented software engineering Linn C, Debray S (2003) Obfuscation of executable code to improve resistance to static disassembly. In: Proceedings of the 10th ACM conference on computer and communications security, CCS ’03,pp. 290–299. ACM, New York, NY, USA. doi:10.1145/948109.948149 Hosking AL, Nystrom N, Whitlock D, Cutts Q, Diwan A (2001) Partial redundancy elimination for access path expressions. Software:practice and experience, vol 31. doi:10.1002/spe.371 Simon F, Steinbrückner F, Lewerentz C (2001) Metrics based refactoring. In: Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on software maintenance and Reengineering, CSMR ’01, pp. 30-. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, DC, USA. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=794203.795287 SutherlandIKalbGEBlythAMulleyGAn empirical examination of the reverse engineering process for binary filesComput & Secur200625322122810.1016/j.cose.2005.11.002 Ceccato M, Penta MD, Nagra J, Falcarin P, Ricca F, Torchiano M, Tonella P (2009) The effectiveness of source code obfuscation: An experimental assessment. In: ICPC. 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| References_xml | – reference: Collberg C, Myles G, Huntwork A (2003) Sandmark–a tool for software protection research. IEEE Secur Priv 1:40–49. doi:10.1109/MSECP.2003.1219058. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=939830.939941 – reference: Jakubowski MH, Saw CW, Venkatesan R (2009) Iterated transformations and quantitative metrics for software protection. In: SECRYPT – reference: Ceccato M, Di Penta M, Nagra J, Falcarin P, Ricca F, Torchiano M, Tonella P Towards experimental evaluation of code obfuscation techniques. In:proceedings of the 4th ACM workshop on quality of protection, QoP ’08, pp. 39–46. ACM, New York, NY, USA (2008). doi:10.1145/1456362.1456371 – reference: Goto H, Mambo M, Matsumura K, Shizuya H (2000) An approach to the objective and quantitative evaluation of tamper-resistant software, In: Proceedings of the third international workshop on information security, ISW ’00. Springer-Verlag, London, UK, pp 82–96. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=648024.744206 – reference: McCabe TJ (1976) A complexity measure. IEEE Trans Softw Eng:308–320 – reference: Vasa R, Schneider J.g. (2003) Evolution of cyclomatic complexity in object oriented software. Proceedings of 7th ECOOP workshop on quantitative approaches in ObjectOriented software engineering QAOOSE, vol 03. http://www.it.swin.edu.au/personal/jschneider/Pub/qaoose03.pdf – reference: Ceccato M, Penta M, Falcarin P, Ricca F, Torchiano M, Tonella P A family of experiments to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of source code obfuscation techniques. Empirical software engineeringpp. 1-35 (2013). doi:10.1007/s10664-013-9248-x – reference: Ceccato M, Penta MD, Nagra J, Falcarin P, Ricca F, Torchiano M, Tonella P (2009) The effectiveness of source code obfuscation: An experimental assessment. In: ICPC. IEEE Comput Soc:178–187 – reference: Wyseur B (2009) White-box cryptography. Ph.D. thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. http://www.cosic.esat.kuleuven.be/publications/talk-98.pdf – reference: Collberg CS, Thomborson C (2002) Watermarking, tamper-proofing, and obfuscation: tools for software protection. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 28:735–746. doi:10.1109/TSE.2002.1027797. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=636196.636198 – reference: SutherlandIKalbGEBlythAMulleyGAn empirical examination of the reverse engineering process for binary filesComput & Secur200625322122810.1016/j.cose.2005.11.002 – reference: Ceccato M, Capiluppi A, Falcarin P, Boldyreff C (2013) A large study on the effect of code obfuscation on the quality of java code: Detailed analysis of data. Tech. rep., FBK, TR-FBK-SE-2013-3,. http://se.fbk.eu/sites/se.fbk.eu/files/TR-FBK-SE-2013-3.pdf – reference: Chidamber SR, Kemerer CF (1994) A metrics suite for object oriented design. IEEE Trans Softw Eng 20:476–493. doi:10.1109/32.295895. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=630808.631131 – reference: Karnick M, MacBride J, McGinnis S, Tang Y, Ramachandran R (2006) A qualitative analysis of java obfuscation. In: proceedings of 10th IASTED international conference on software engineering and applications, Dallas TX, USA – reference: BasiliVBriandLMeloWA validation of object-oriented design metrics as quality indicators. Software engineeringIEEE Trans19962210751761 – reference: Sheskin D (2007) Handbook of parametric and nonparametric statistical procedures (4th Ed.). Chapman & All – reference: Hosking AL, Nystrom N, Whitlock D, Cutts Q, Diwan A (2001) Partial redundancy elimination for access path expressions. Software:practice and experience, vol 31. doi:10.1002/spe.371 – reference: Cohen FB (1993) Operating system protection through program evolution. Comput Secur 12:565–584. doi:10.1016/0167-4048(93)90054-9. http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=179007.179012 – reference: Collberg C, Thomborson C, Low D (1997) A taxonomy of obfuscating transformations. Tech Rep:148. http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/%7Ecollberg/Research/Publications/CollbergThomborsonLow97a/index.html – reference: Heffner K, Collberg C (2004) The obfuscation executive. In:Information security. Springer, pp 428–440 – reference: Udupa SK, Debray SK, Madou M Deobfuscation:reverse engineering obfuscated code. In:proceedings of the 12th Working conference on reverse engineering, pp. 45–54. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, DC, USA (2005). http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1107841.1108171 – reference: Visaggio CA, Pagin GA, Canfora G (2013) An empirical study of metric-based methods to detect obfuscated code. Int J Secur & Appl 7(2):59 – reference: Wohlin C, Runeson P, Höst M, Ohlsson M, Regnell B, Wesslén A (2000) Experimentation in software engineering - an introduction, Kluwer Academic Publishers – reference: Falcarin P, Collberg C, Atallah M, Jakubowski M (2011) Guest editors’ introduction:software protection. IEEE Softw 28:24–27. doi:10.1109/MS.2011.34. doi:10.1109/MS.2011.34 – reference: Linn C, Debray S (2003) Obfuscation of executable code to improve resistance to static disassembly. In: Proceedings of the 10th ACM conference on computer and communications security, CCS ’03,pp. 290–299. ACM, New York, NY, USA. doi:10.1145/948109.948149 – reference: Anckaert B, Madou M, De Sutter B, De Bus B, De Bosschere K, Preneel B (2007) Program obfuscation: a quantitative approach. In: Proceedings of the 2007 ACM workshop on quality of protection, QoP ’07,pp. 15-20. ACM, New York, NY, USA. doi:10.1145/1314257.1314263 – reference: Simon F, Steinbrückner F, Lewerentz C (2001) Metrics based refactoring. In: Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on software maintenance and Reengineering, CSMR ’01, pp. 30-. 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| Title | A large study on the effect of code obfuscation on the quality of java code |
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