Unparalleled coupled ocean-atmosphere summer heatwaves in the New Zealand region: drivers, mechanisms and impacts

During austral summers (DJF) 1934/35, 2017/18 and 2018/19, the New Zealand (NZ) region (approximately 4 million km 2 ) experienced the most intense coupled ocean-atmosphere heatwaves on record. Average air temperature anomalies over land were + 1.7 to 2.1 °C while sea surface temperatures (SST) were...

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Published inClimatic change Vol. 162; no. 2; pp. 485 - 506
Main Authors Salinger, M. James, Diamond, Howard J., Behrens, Erik, Fernandez, Denise, Fitzharris, B. Blair, Herold, Nicholas, Johnstone, Paul, Kerckhoffs, Huub, Mullan, A. Brett, Parker, Amber K., Renwick, James, Scofield, Claire, Siano, Allan, Smith, Robert O., South, Paul M., Sutton, Phil J., Teixeira, Edmar, Thomsen, Mads S., Trought, Michael C. T.
Format Journal Article
LanguageEnglish
Published Dordrecht Springer Netherlands 01.09.2020
Springer Nature B.V
Subjects
20th century
Ablation
Advection
Air temperature
Alps region
Anomalies
Antarctic Oscillation
Apricots
Atmosphere
Atmospheric circulation
Atmospheric circulation anomalies
Atmospheric circulation patterns
Atmospheric Sciences
Cherries
Climate change
Climate Change/Climate Change Impacts
Earth and Environmental Science
Earth Sciences
Flowering
General circulation models
Heat
Heat transport
Heat waves
Heatwaves
Ice
Marine ecosystems
New Zealand
Ocean warming
Ocean-atmosphere system
Oceans
Sea level
Sea surface
Sea surface temperature
Sea surface temperature anomalies
snow
Spring wheat
Summer
Surface temperature
Tasman Sea
Temperature
Temperature anomalies
Terrestrial ecosystems
Wines
New Zealand
Alps region
Tasman Sea
Anthropogenic global warming
Marine ecosystems
Atmospheric heatwave
Terrestrial ecosystems
Marine heatwave
Crops
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Abstract During austral summers (DJF) 1934/35, 2017/18 and 2018/19, the New Zealand (NZ) region (approximately 4 million km 2 ) experienced the most intense coupled ocean-atmosphere heatwaves on record. Average air temperature anomalies over land were + 1.7 to 2.1 °C while sea surface temperatures (SST) were 1.2 to 1.9 °C above average. All three heatwaves exhibited maximum SST anomalies west of the South Island of NZ. Atmospheric circulation anomalies showed a pattern of blocking centred over the Tasman Sea extending south-east of NZ, accompanied by strongly positive Southern Annular Mode conditions, and reduced trough activity over NZ. Rapid melt of seasonal snow occurred in all three cases. For the two most recent events, combined ice loss in the Southern Alps was estimated at 8.9 km 3 (22% of the 2017 volume). Sauvignon blanc and Pinot noir wine grapes had above average berry number and bunch mass in 2018 but were below average in 2019. Summerfruit harvest (cherries and apricots) was 14 and 2 days ahead of normal in 2017/18 and 2018/19 respectively. Spring wheat simulations suggested earlier flowering and lower grain yields compared to average, and below-average yield and tuber quality in potatoes crops occurred. Major species disruption occurred in marine ecosystems. Hindcasts indicate that the heatwaves were either atmospherically driven or arose from combinations of atmospheric surface warming and oceanic heat advection.
AbstractList During austral summers (DJF) 1934/35, 2017/18 and 2018/19, the New Zealand (NZ) region (approximately 4 million km 2 ) experienced the most intense coupled ocean-atmosphere heatwaves on record. Average air temperature anomalies over land were + 1.7 to 2.1 °C while sea surface temperatures (SST) were 1.2 to 1.9 °C above average. All three heatwaves exhibited maximum SST anomalies west of the South Island of NZ. Atmospheric circulation anomalies showed a pattern of blocking centred over the Tasman Sea extending south-east of NZ, accompanied by strongly positive Southern Annular Mode conditions, and reduced trough activity over NZ. Rapid melt of seasonal snow occurred in all three cases. For the two most recent events, combined ice loss in the Southern Alps was estimated at 8.9 km 3 (22% of the 2017 volume). Sauvignon blanc and Pinot noir wine grapes had above average berry number and bunch mass in 2018 but were below average in 2019. Summerfruit harvest (cherries and apricots) was 14 and 2 days ahead of normal in 2017/18 and 2018/19 respectively. Spring wheat simulations suggested earlier flowering and lower grain yields compared to average, and below-average yield and tuber quality in potatoes crops occurred. Major species disruption occurred in marine ecosystems. Hindcasts indicate that the heatwaves were either atmospherically driven or arose from combinations of atmospheric surface warming and oceanic heat advection.
During austral summers (DJF) 1934/35, 2017/18 and 2018/19, the New Zealand (NZ) region (approximately 4 million km²) experienced the most intense coupled ocean-atmosphere heatwaves on record. Average air temperature anomalies over land were + 1.7 to 2.1 °C while sea surface temperatures (SST) were 1.2 to 1.9 °C above average. All three heatwaves exhibited maximum SST anomalies west of the South Island of NZ. Atmospheric circulation anomalies showed a pattern of blocking centred over the Tasman Sea extending south-east of NZ, accompanied by strongly positive Southern Annular Mode conditions, and reduced trough activity over NZ. Rapid melt of seasonal snow occurred in all three cases. For the two most recent events, combined ice loss in the Southern Alps was estimated at 8.9 km³ (22% of the 2017 volume). Sauvignon blanc and Pinot noir wine grapes had above average berry number and bunch mass in 2018 but were below average in 2019. Summerfruit harvest (cherries and apricots) was 14 and 2 days ahead of normal in 2017/18 and 2018/19 respectively. Spring wheat simulations suggested earlier flowering and lower grain yields compared to average, and below-average yield and tuber quality in potatoes crops occurred. Major species disruption occurred in marine ecosystems. Hindcasts indicate that the heatwaves were either atmospherically driven or arose from combinations of atmospheric surface warming and oceanic heat advection.
During austral summers (DJF) 1934/35, 2017/18 and 2018/19, the New Zealand (NZ) region (approximately 4 million km2) experienced the most intense coupled ocean-atmosphere heatwaves on record. Average air temperature anomalies over land were + 1.7 to 2.1 °C while sea surface temperatures (SST) were 1.2 to 1.9 °C above average. All three heatwaves exhibited maximum SST anomalies west of the South Island of NZ. Atmospheric circulation anomalies showed a pattern of blocking centred over the Tasman Sea extending south-east of NZ, accompanied by strongly positive Southern Annular Mode conditions, and reduced trough activity over NZ. Rapid melt of seasonal snow occurred in all three cases. For the two most recent events, combined ice loss in the Southern Alps was estimated at 8.9 km3 (22% of the 2017 volume). Sauvignon blanc and Pinot noir wine grapes had above average berry number and bunch mass in 2018 but were below average in 2019. Summerfruit harvest (cherries and apricots) was 14 and 2 days ahead of normal in 2017/18 and 2018/19 respectively. Spring wheat simulations suggested earlier flowering and lower grain yields compared to average, and below-average yield and tuber quality in potatoes crops occurred. Major species disruption occurred in marine ecosystems. Hindcasts indicate that the heatwaves were either atmospherically driven or arose from combinations of atmospheric surface warming and oceanic heat advection.
Author Behrens, Erik
Parker, Amber K.
Teixeira, Edmar
Trought, Michael C. T.
Diamond, Howard J.
Salinger, M. James
Herold, Nicholas
Scofield, Claire
Mullan, A. Brett
Thomsen, Mads S.
Sutton, Phil J.
Fitzharris, B. Blair
Renwick, James
Siano, Allan
Kerckhoffs, Huub
South, Paul M.
Fernandez, Denise
Johnstone, Paul
Smith, Robert O.
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Tue Jul 01 03:17:13 EDT 2025
Thu Apr 24 23:05:11 EDT 2025
Fri Feb 21 02:38:50 EST 2025
IsPeerReviewed true
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Issue 2
Keywords Anthropogenic global warming
Marine ecosystems
Atmospheric heatwave
Terrestrial ecosystems
Marine heatwave
Crops
Language English
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PublicationSubtitle An Interdisciplinary, International Journal Devoted to the Description, Causes and Implications of Climatic Change
PublicationTitle Climatic change
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Springer Nature B.V
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HillerLThorntonREManaging physiological disorders. Chapter 23: 235–246.In D. A. Johnson (Ed.), potato health management20082MinnesotaAPS PressISBN 978-0-89054-353-5
Mullan AB, Sood A, Stuart S (2016) Climate change projections for New Zealand: atmosphere projections based on simulations from the IPCC fifth assessment Wellington: Ministry for the Environment https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/media/Climate%20Change/Climate-change-projections-2nd-edition-final.pdf
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ThompsonDWJSolomonSKushnerPJEnglandMHGriseKMKarolyDJSignatures of the Antarctic ozone hole in southern hemisphere surface climate changeNat Geosci201141174174910.1038/NGEO1296
SuttonPJBowenMOcean temperature change around New Zealand over the last 36 yearsN Z J Mar Freshw Res201953330532610.1080/00288330.2018.1562945
ThomsenMSSouthPCommunities and attachment networks associated with primary, secondary and alternative foundation species; a case of stressed and disturbed stands of southern bull kelpDiversity20191145610.3390/d11040056
KistlerRCollinsWSahaSWhiteGWoollenJKalnayEThe NCEP–NCAR 50–year reanalysis: monthly means CD–ROM and documentationBull Am Meteorol Soc200182224726810.1175/1520-0477(2001)082<0247:TNNYRM>2.3.CO;2
MarshallGJTrends in the southern annular mode from observations and reanalysesJ Clim2003164134414310.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<4134:TITSAM>2.0.CO;2
Thomsen MS, Mondardini L, Alestra T, Gerrity S, Tait L, South PM, Lilley SA, Schiel DR (2019) Local extinction of bull kelp (Durvillaea spp.) due to a marine Heatwave. Front Mar Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00084
OjedaHDeloireACarbonneauAInfluence of water deficits on grape berry growthVitis200140141145https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285702011_Influence_of_water_deficits_on_grape_berry_growth
HartmannDLAMGKTRusticucciMAlexanderLVBrönnimannSCharabiYDentenerFJDlugokenckyEGEasterlingDRKaplanASodenBJThornePWWildMZhaiPMStockerTFQinDPlattnerK-GTignorMAllenSKBoschungJNauelsAXiaYBexVMidgleyPMObservations: atmosphere and surfaceClimate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change2013CambridgeCambridge University Press
TrenberthKEZhangYFasulloJTChengLObservation-based estimates of global and Basin Ocean Meridional heat transport time seriesJ Clim2019324567458310.1175/JCLI-D-18-0872.1
Heidemann H, Ribbe J (2019) Marine heat waves and the influence of El Niño off Southeast Queensland, Australia, Frontiers of marine science, 20 February 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.0005d
SianoABRoskrugeNKerchkhoffsLHJSofkova-BobchevaSYield and tuber quality variability in commercial potato cultivars under abiotic stress in New ZealandAgron N Z201848149163https://www.agronomysociety.nz/files/ASNZ_2018_14._Potato_yield_and_tuber_quality.pdf
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HenleyBJGergisJKarolyDJPowerSBKennedyJFollandCKA tripole index for the Interdecadal Pacific OscillationClim Dyn20154511–123077309010.1007/s00382-015-2525-1Accessed on 05 27 2019 at https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/data/timeseries/IPOTPI
TroughtMCTKdGDundonCJohnstoneRPartridgeSFruitset - possible implications on wine qualityTransforming flowers to fruit2005MilduraAustralian Society of Viticulture and Oenology3236
JayneSRRoemmichDZilbermanNRiserSCJohnsonKSJohnsonKCPiotrowiczSRThe Argo program: present and futureOceanography201730182810.5670/oceanog.2017.213
Salinger MJ, Chinn TJ, Fitzharris BB (2019b) Annual ice volume changes 1949–2019 for the New Zealand Southern Alps. Int J Climatol (submitted)
FitzharrisBGarrGESimulation of past variability in seasonal snow in the southern Alps, New ZealandAnn Glaciol19952137738210.3189/S0260305500016098
Hobday A, Oliver E, Gupta AS, Benthuysen J, Burrows M, Donat M, Holbrook N, Moore P, Thomsen M, Wernberg T, Smale D (2018) categorizing and naming marine heatwaves. Oceanogr 31(2)
Oliver ECJ, Benthuysen JA, Bindoff NL, Hobday AJ, Holbrook NJ, Mundy CN, Perkins-Kirkpatrick SE (2017) The unprecedented 2015/16 Tasman Sea marine heatwave. Nat Commun:8. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms16101
BehrensEFernandezDSuttonPMeridional oceanic heat transport influences marine heatwaves in the Tasman Sea on interannual to decadal timescalesFront Mar Sciee2019622810.3389/fmars.2019.00228
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Salinger MJ, Diamond HJ (2020). Surface temperature trends in the New Zealand region 1871–2018. Submited to Weather and Climate
BenthuysenJFengMZhongLSpatial patterns of warming off Western Australia during the 2011 Ningaloo Nino: quantifying impacts of remote and local forcing ContShelf Res20149123224610.1016/j.csr.2014.09.014
Holzworth DP, Huth NI, deVoil PG, ZurcherEJ HNI, McLean G, Chenu K, van Oosterom EJ, Snow V, Murphy C, Moore AD, Brown H, Whish JM, Verrall S, Fainges J, Bell LW, Peake AS, Poulton PL, Hochman Z, Thorburn PJ, Gaydon DS, Dalgliesh NP, Rodriguez D, Cox H, Chapman S, Doherty A, Teixeira E, Sharp J, Cichota R, Vogeler I, Li FY, Wang E, Hammer GL, Robertson MJ, Dimes JP, Whitbread AM, Hunt J, van Rees H, McClelland T, Carberry PS, Hargreaves JNG, MacLeod N, McDonald C, Harsdorf J, Wedgwood S, Keating BA (2014) APSIM—evolution towards a new generation of agricultural systems simulation. Environ Model Softw 62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2014.07.009
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HobdayAAlexanderLVPerkinsSESmaleDAStraubSCOliverECJBenthuysenJABurrowsMTDonatMGFengMHolbrookNJMoorePJScannellHASen GuptaAWernbergTA hierarchical approach to defining marine heatwavesProg Oceanogr201614122723810.1016/j.pocean.2015.1012.1014Outcome of Workshop #1
GreerDHWestonCHeat stress affects flowering, berry growth, sugar accumulation and photosynthesis of *Vitis vinifera* cv. Semillon grapevines grown in a controlled environmentFunct Plant Biol20103720621410.1071/FP09209
Gregan P (2019) Vintage 2019 small but stunning. https://www.nzwine.com/media/13040/vintage-2019-small-but-stunning.pdf
TeixeiraEIde RuiterJAusseilA-GA-GDaigneaultAJohnstonePHolmesATaitAEwertFAdapting crop rotations to climate change in regional impact modelling assessmentsSci Total Environ2018616–61778579510.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.247
GordonNDThe southern oscillation and New Zealand weatherMon Weather Rev198611437138710.1175/1520-0493(1986)114<0371:TSOANZ>2.0.CO;2
OliverECJDonatMGMoorePJSmaleDAAlexanderLVBenthuysenJAFengMGuptaASHobdayAJHolbrookNJPerkins-KirkpatrickSEStraubSCWernbergTLonger and more frequent marine heatwaves over the past centuryNat Commun20189132410.1038/s41467-018-03732-9
ChinnTJFitzharrisBBSalingerMJWillsmanAAnnual ice volume changes 1976–2008 for the New Zealand Southern AlpsGlob Planet Change201292–9310511810.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.04.002
ParkerAGarcia de Cortazar-AtauriIChuineIBarbeauGBoisBBoursiquotJ-MCahurelJ-YClaverieMDufourcqTGenyLGuimberteauGHofmannRWJacquetOLacombeTMonamyCOjedaHPanigaiLPayanJ-CLovelleBRRouchaudESchneiderCSpringJ-LStorchiPTomasiDTrambouzeWTroughtMvan LeeuwenCClassification of varieties for their timing of flowering and véraison using a modelling approach: a case study for the grapevine species Vitis vinifera LAgric For Meteorol201318024926410.1016/j.agrf
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J Blunden (2730_CR4) 2019; 2019
B Huang (2730_CR23) 2017; 30
KE Trenberth (2730_CR52) 1976; 102
References_xml – reference: BlundenJArndtDSA look at 2018 takeaway points from the state of the climate 2018 supplementBull Amer Met Soc201920191527153810.1175/BAMS-D-19-0193.1
– reference: Heidemann H, Ribbe J (2019) Marine heat waves and the influence of El Niño off Southeast Queensland, Australia, Frontiers of marine science, 20 February 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.0005d
– reference: ChinnTJFitzharrisBBSalingerMJWillsmanAAnnual ice volume changes 1976–2008 for the New Zealand Southern AlpsGlob Planet Change201292–9310511810.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.04.002
– reference: Garr CE, Fitzharris BB (1996) Using seasonal snow to forecast inflows into South island hydro lakes. In: Prospects and Needs for Climate Forecasting, The Royal Society of New Zealand Miscellaneous Series 34: 63–67 [ISBN 0-908654-61-8]
– reference: HartmannDLAMGKTRusticucciMAlexanderLVBrönnimannSCharabiYDentenerFJDlugokenckyEGEasterlingDRKaplanASodenBJThornePWWildMZhaiPMStockerTFQinDPlattnerK-GTignorMAllenSKBoschungJNauelsAXiaYBexVMidgleyPMObservations: atmosphere and surfaceClimate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change2013CambridgeCambridge University Press
– reference: SahaSThe NCEP climate forecast systemJ Clim2006193483351710.1175/JCLI-D-12-00823.1
– reference: HillerLThorntonREManaging physiological disorders. Chapter 23: 235–246.In D. A. Johnson (Ed.), potato health management20082MinnesotaAPS PressISBN 978-0-89054-353-5
– reference: FitzharrisBGarrGESimulation of past variability in seasonal snow in the southern Alps, New ZealandAnn Glaciol19952137738210.3189/S0260305500016098
– reference: Holzworth DP, Huth NI, deVoil PG, ZurcherEJ HNI, McLean G, Chenu K, van Oosterom EJ, Snow V, Murphy C, Moore AD, Brown H, Whish JM, Verrall S, Fainges J, Bell LW, Peake AS, Poulton PL, Hochman Z, Thorburn PJ, Gaydon DS, Dalgliesh NP, Rodriguez D, Cox H, Chapman S, Doherty A, Teixeira E, Sharp J, Cichota R, Vogeler I, Li FY, Wang E, Hammer GL, Robertson MJ, Dimes JP, Whitbread AM, Hunt J, van Rees H, McClelland T, Carberry PS, Hargreaves JNG, MacLeod N, McDonald C, Harsdorf J, Wedgwood S, Keating BA (2014) APSIM—evolution towards a new generation of agricultural systems simulation. Environ Model Softw 62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2014.07.009
– reference: SianoABRoskrugeNKerchkhoffsLHJSofkova-BobchevaSYield and tuber quality variability in commercial potato cultivars under abiotic stress in New ZealandAgron N Z201848149163https://www.agronomysociety.nz/files/ASNZ_2018_14._Potato_yield_and_tuber_quality.pdf
– reference: MolitorDJunkJClimate change is implicating a two-fold impact on air temperature increase in the ripening period under the conditions of the Luxembourgish grapegrowing regionOeno-one2019340942210.20870/oeno-one.2019.53.3.2329
– reference: Salinger MJ, McGann RP, Coutts L, Collen B, Fouhy E (1992) South Pacific historical climate network. Temperature trends in New Zealand and outlying islands, 1920-1990. New Zealand meteorological service, 46pp, Wellington. ISBN 0-477-01598-0
– reference: SuttonPJBowenMOcean temperature change around New Zealand over the last 36 yearsN Z J Mar Freshw Res201953330532610.1080/00288330.2018.1562945
– reference: HobdayAAlexanderLVPerkinsSESmaleDAStraubSCOliverECJBenthuysenJABurrowsMTDonatMGFengMHolbrookNJMoorePJScannellHASen GuptaAWernbergTA hierarchical approach to defining marine heatwavesProg Oceanogr201614122723810.1016/j.pocean.2015.1012.1014Outcome of Workshop #1
– reference: TroughtMCTKdGDundonCJohnstoneRPartridgeSFruitset - possible implications on wine qualityTransforming flowers to fruit2005MilduraAustralian Society of Viticulture and Oenology3236
– reference: TroupAJThe ‘southern oscillation’Quart J Roy Met Soc19659139049050610.1002/qj.49709139009
– reference: CompoGPWhitakerJSSardeshmukhPDMatsuiNAllanRJYinXThe twentieth century reanalysis projectQ J R Meteorol Soc201113765412810.1002/qj.776
– reference: HenleyBJGergisJKarolyDJPowerSBKennedyJFollandCKA tripole index for the Interdecadal Pacific OscillationClim Dyn20154511–123077309010.1007/s00382-015-2525-1Accessed on 05 27 2019 at https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/data/timeseries/IPOTPI
– reference: Mullan AB, Sood A, Stuart S (2016) Climate change projections for New Zealand: atmosphere projections based on simulations from the IPCC fifth assessment Wellington: Ministry for the Environment https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/media/Climate%20Change/Climate-change-projections-2nd-edition-final.pdf
– reference: Thomsen MS, Mondardini L, Alestra T, Gerrity S, Tait L, South PM, Lilley SA, Schiel DR (2019) Local extinction of bull kelp (Durvillaea spp.) due to a marine Heatwave. Front Mar Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00084
– reference: Hobday A, Oliver E, Gupta AS, Benthuysen J, Burrows M, Donat M, Holbrook N, Moore P, Thomsen M, Wernberg T, Smale D (2018) categorizing and naming marine heatwaves. Oceanogr 31(2)
– reference: Gregan P (2019) Vintage 2019 small but stunning. https://www.nzwine.com/media/13040/vintage-2019-small-but-stunning.pdf
– reference: ThompsonDWJSolomonSKushnerPJEnglandMHGriseKMKarolyDJSignatures of the Antarctic ozone hole in southern hemisphere surface climate changeNat Geosci201141174174910.1038/NGEO1296
– reference: BenthuysenJFengMZhongLSpatial patterns of warming off Western Australia during the 2011 Ningaloo Nino: quantifying impacts of remote and local forcing ContShelf Res20149123224610.1016/j.csr.2014.09.014
– reference: Parker AK (2012) Modelling phenology and maturation of the grapevine Vitis vinifera L.: Varietal differences and the role of leaf area to fruit weight ratio manipulations Lincoln University PhD thesis Lincoln University
– reference: KistlerRCollinsWSahaSWhiteGWoollenJKalnayEThe NCEP–NCAR 50–year reanalysis: monthly means CD–ROM and documentationBull Am Meteorol Soc200182224726810.1175/1520-0477(2001)082<0247:TNNYRM>2.3.CO;2
– reference: Rezaei EE, Siebert S, Ewert F (2015) Intensity of heat stress in winter wheat—phenology compensates for the adverse effect of global warming. Environ Res Lett 10(24012). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/2/024012
– reference: OjedaHDeloireACarbonneauAInfluence of water deficits on grape berry growthVitis200140141145https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285702011_Influence_of_water_deficits_on_grape_berry_growth
– reference: BehrensEFernandezDSuttonPMeridional oceanic heat transport influences marine heatwaves in the Tasman Sea on interannual to decadal timescalesFront Mar Sciee2019622810.3389/fmars.2019.00228
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Snippet During austral summers (DJF) 1934/35, 2017/18 and 2018/19, the New Zealand (NZ) region (approximately 4 million km 2 ) experienced the most intense coupled...
During austral summers (DJF) 1934/35, 2017/18 and 2018/19, the New Zealand (NZ) region (approximately 4 million km2) experienced the most intense coupled...
During austral summers (DJF) 1934/35, 2017/18 and 2018/19, the New Zealand (NZ) region (approximately 4 million km²) experienced the most intense coupled...
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StartPage 485
SubjectTerms 20th century
Ablation
Advection
Air temperature
Alps region
Anomalies
Antarctic Oscillation
Apricots
Atmosphere
Atmospheric circulation
Atmospheric circulation anomalies
Atmospheric circulation patterns
Atmospheric Sciences
Cherries
Climate change
Climate Change/Climate Change Impacts
Earth and Environmental Science
Earth Sciences
Flowering
General circulation models
Heat
Heat transport
Heat waves
Heatwaves
Ice
Marine ecosystems
New Zealand
Ocean warming
Ocean-atmosphere system
Oceans
Sea level
Sea surface
Sea surface temperature
Sea surface temperature anomalies
snow
Spring wheat
Summer
Surface temperature
Tasman Sea
Temperature
Temperature anomalies
Terrestrial ecosystems
Wines
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Title Unparalleled coupled ocean-atmosphere summer heatwaves in the New Zealand region: drivers, mechanisms and impacts
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