Deep Learning Methods to Reveal Important X-ray Features in COVID-19 Detection: Investigation of Explainability and Feature Reproducibility

• Published in: Reports (MDPI) Vol. 5; no. 2; p. 20
• Main Authors: Apostolopoulos, Ioannis D., Apostolopoulos, Dimitris J., Papathanasiou, Nikolaos D.
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: Basel MDPI AG 01.06.2022
• Subjects: Accuracy; Algorithms; Artificial intelligence; Classification; Coronaviruses; COVID-19; Datasets; Deep learning; Disease; explainable artificial intelligence; Infections; Medical research; Pneumonia; Reproducibility; Tomography; X-rays
• DOI: 10.3390/reports5020020
• ISSN: 2571-841X

X-ray technology has been recently employed for the detection of the lethal human coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) as a timely, cheap, and helpful ancillary method for diagnosis. The scientific community evaluated deep learning methods to aid in the automatic detection of the disease, utilizing publicly available small samples of X-ray images. In the majority of cases, the results demonstrate the effectiveness of deep learning and suggest valid detection of the disease from X-ray scans. However, little has been investigated regarding the actual findings of deep learning through the image process. In the present study, a large-scale dataset of pulmonary diseases, including COVID-19, was utilized for experiments, aiming to shed light on this issue. For the detection task, MobileNet (v2) was employed, which has been proven very effective in our previous works. Through analytical experiments utilizing feature visualization techniques and altering the input dataset classes, it was suggested that MobileNet (v2) discovers important image findings and not only features. It was demonstrated that MobileNet (v2) is an effective, accurate, and low-computational-cost solution for distinguishing COVID-19 from 12 various other pulmonary abnormalities and normal subjects. This study offers an analysis of image features extracted from MobileNet (v2), aiming to investigate the validity of those features and their medical importance. The pipeline can detect abnormal X-rays with an accuracy of 95.45 ± 1.54% and can distinguish COVID-19 with an accuracy of 89.88 ± 3.66%. The visualized results of the Grad-CAM algorithm provide evidence that the methodology identifies meaningful areas on the images. Finally, the detected image features were reproducible in 98% of the times after repeating the experiment for three times.