Liquid Metal Enabled Thermoelectric Effects: Fundamental and Application

The thermoelectric (TE) effect, capable of directly converting heat into electrical energy, has catalyzed the development of numerous next‐generation functional devices. However, traditional TE generators (TEGs), predominantly composed of rigid materials, are unable to maintain synchronous deformati...

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Published inAdvanced functional materials Vol. 35; no. 32
Main Authors Guan, Tangzhen, Gao, Jianye, Hua, Chen, Tao, Yiyue, Ma, Yibing, Liu, Jing
Format Journal Article
LanguageEnglish
Published Hoboken Wiley Subscription Services, Inc 08.08.2025
Subjects
Contact resistance
Electric contacts
Electrical resistivity
Flexibility
Gallium
Healing
Heat conductivity
Heat transfer
interconnects
Liquid metals
printed thermoelectric materials
Semiconductors
Stretchability
Thermal conductivity
thermoelectric effect
Thermoelectric materials
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Abstract The thermoelectric (TE) effect, capable of directly converting heat into electrical energy, has catalyzed the development of numerous next‐generation functional devices. However, traditional TE generators (TEGs), predominantly composed of rigid materials, are unable to maintain synchronous deformation under bending, twisting, or stretching, thereby limiting their application potential. Liquid metal (LM), with its exceptional electrical conductivity, flexibility, thermal conductivity, self‐healing properties, and unique TE effects, presents a compelling alternative as a conductive and heat‐transfer material. By integrating LM with TE effects, TEGs can achieve flexibility, stretchability, and self‐healing capabilities, enhance the thermal conductivity of encapsulating materials (ECMs), reduce interfacial contact resistance, and improve overall performance. This article provides a comprehensive review of the cutting‐edge intersection between LM and TE effects, encompassing applications of LM in interconnects (INCs), heat‐conductive materials, and the fabrication of TE legs. Subsequently, the unique TE effects at liquid–liquid interfaces between gallium and commonly used LMs are reviewed. Additionally, the emerging process of fabricating thermoelectric materials (TEMs) using LM‐printed semiconductors is explored. Finally, based on an evaluation of the latest advancements in this field, the challenges and promising directions for future research at the intersection of LM and TE effects are discussed. This review systematically explores liquid metal (LM)‐enabled thermoelectric (TE) effects, highlighting fundamental properties and multifunctional application scenarios. With unique traits such as fluidity, high electrical/thermal conductivity, and self‐healing, LMs impart stretchability and self‐repair capabilities to TE devices. Key challenges and future research opportunities for advancing this emerging field are also discussed.
AbstractList The thermoelectric (TE) effect, capable of directly converting heat into electrical energy, has catalyzed the development of numerous next‐generation functional devices. However, traditional TE generators (TEGs), predominantly composed of rigid materials, are unable to maintain synchronous deformation under bending, twisting, or stretching, thereby limiting their application potential. Liquid metal (LM), with its exceptional electrical conductivity, flexibility, thermal conductivity, self‐healing properties, and unique TE effects, presents a compelling alternative as a conductive and heat‐transfer material. By integrating LM with TE effects, TEGs can achieve flexibility, stretchability, and self‐healing capabilities, enhance the thermal conductivity of encapsulating materials (ECMs), reduce interfacial contact resistance, and improve overall performance. This article provides a comprehensive review of the cutting‐edge intersection between LM and TE effects, encompassing applications of LM in interconnects (INCs), heat‐conductive materials, and the fabrication of TE legs. Subsequently, the unique TE effects at liquid–liquid interfaces between gallium and commonly used LMs are reviewed. Additionally, the emerging process of fabricating thermoelectric materials (TEMs) using LM‐printed semiconductors is explored. Finally, based on an evaluation of the latest advancements in this field, the challenges and promising directions for future research at the intersection of LM and TE effects are discussed.
The thermoelectric (TE) effect, capable of directly converting heat into electrical energy, has catalyzed the development of numerous next‐generation functional devices. However, traditional TE generators (TEGs), predominantly composed of rigid materials, are unable to maintain synchronous deformation under bending, twisting, or stretching, thereby limiting their application potential. Liquid metal (LM), with its exceptional electrical conductivity, flexibility, thermal conductivity, self‐healing properties, and unique TE effects, presents a compelling alternative as a conductive and heat‐transfer material. By integrating LM with TE effects, TEGs can achieve flexibility, stretchability, and self‐healing capabilities, enhance the thermal conductivity of encapsulating materials (ECMs), reduce interfacial contact resistance, and improve overall performance. This article provides a comprehensive review of the cutting‐edge intersection between LM and TE effects, encompassing applications of LM in interconnects (INCs), heat‐conductive materials, and the fabrication of TE legs. Subsequently, the unique TE effects at liquid–liquid interfaces between gallium and commonly used LMs are reviewed. Additionally, the emerging process of fabricating thermoelectric materials (TEMs) using LM‐printed semiconductors is explored. Finally, based on an evaluation of the latest advancements in this field, the challenges and promising directions for future research at the intersection of LM and TE effects are discussed.
The thermoelectric (TE) effect, capable of directly converting heat into electrical energy, has catalyzed the development of numerous next‐generation functional devices. However, traditional TE generators (TEGs), predominantly composed of rigid materials, are unable to maintain synchronous deformation under bending, twisting, or stretching, thereby limiting their application potential. Liquid metal (LM), with its exceptional electrical conductivity, flexibility, thermal conductivity, self‐healing properties, and unique TE effects, presents a compelling alternative as a conductive and heat‐transfer material. By integrating LM with TE effects, TEGs can achieve flexibility, stretchability, and self‐healing capabilities, enhance the thermal conductivity of encapsulating materials (ECMs), reduce interfacial contact resistance, and improve overall performance. This article provides a comprehensive review of the cutting‐edge intersection between LM and TE effects, encompassing applications of LM in interconnects (INCs), heat‐conductive materials, and the fabrication of TE legs. Subsequently, the unique TE effects at liquid–liquid interfaces between gallium and commonly used LMs are reviewed. Additionally, the emerging process of fabricating thermoelectric materials (TEMs) using LM‐printed semiconductors is explored. Finally, based on an evaluation of the latest advancements in this field, the challenges and promising directions for future research at the intersection of LM and TE effects are discussed. This review systematically explores liquid metal (LM)‐enabled thermoelectric (TE) effects, highlighting fundamental properties and multifunctional application scenarios. With unique traits such as fluidity, high electrical/thermal conductivity, and self‐healing, LMs impart stretchability and self‐repair capabilities to TE devices. Key challenges and future research opportunities for advancing this emerging field are also discussed.
Author Guan, Tangzhen
Hua, Chen
Liu, Jing
Gao, Jianye
Tao, Yiyue
Ma, Yibing
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  email: jliu@mail.ipc.ac.cn
  organization: University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
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2018; 30
2022; 31
2024; 4
2022; 32
2007; 1
2014; 10
2017; 205
2022; 201
2022; 233
2019; 7
2023; 58
2012; 101
2019; 5
2024; 247
2024; 129
2011; 84
2015; 54
2024; 121
2018; 20
2012; 107
2018; 18
2018; 17
2010; 46
2023; 274
2022; 12
2022; 13
2022; 14
2024; 495
2014; 35
2024; 132
2022; 15
2022; 10
2018; 10
2022; 226
2022; 102
2025; 504
2024; 490
2017; 5
1998; 48
2022; 253
2021; 21
2017; 1
2017; 2
2022; 251
2022; 130
2023; 8
2023; 9
2019; 126
2022; 67
2023; 945
2025; 35
2017; 9
2022; 259
2012; 52
2021; 32
2021; 33
2024; 316
2023; 134
2014; 1591
2021; 192
2016; 83
2014; 116
2014 2017; 44 202
2021; 507
2009; 21
2000; 23
2008; 18
2023; 244
2011; 36
2014; 115
2021; 13
2021; 16
2015; 27
2021; 11
2021; 18
2018; 156
2021; 17
2023; 117
2019; 138
2019; 134
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Snippet The thermoelectric (TE) effect, capable of directly converting heat into electrical energy, has catalyzed the development of numerous next‐generation...
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SubjectTerms Contact resistance
Electric contacts
Electrical resistivity
Flexibility
Gallium
Healing
Heat conductivity
Heat transfer
interconnects
Liquid metals
printed thermoelectric materials
Semiconductors
Stretchability
Thermal conductivity
thermoelectric effect
Thermoelectric materials
Title Liquid Metal Enabled Thermoelectric Effects: Fundamental and Application
URI https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002%2Fadfm.202423909
https://www.proquest.com/docview/3238300981
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