The dilemma of flood occurrence in Accra: climate change or poor land use planning and practices?
Over the years, climate change and land use planning are considered debateable perspectives on the true cause of the perennial flooding in many African cities, with inconclusiveness on the subject matter. This paper thus contributes to the debate with trend analysis on which of the two perspectives...
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| Published in | SN Social Sciences Vol. 2; no. 8 |
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| Main Authors | , , , , |
| Format | Journal Article |
| Language | English |
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Springer International Publishing
19.07.2022
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| Abstract | Over the years, climate change and land use planning are considered debateable perspectives on the true cause of the perennial flooding in many African cities, with inconclusiveness on the subject matter. This paper thus contributes to the debate with trend analysis on which of the two perspectives is the major cause of the perennial flooding situation in African cities, taking Accra as a study case. The focus of this paper is therefore to examine the nature of flooding to succinctly draw a justified conclusion on the deliberations regarding whether flooding in Accra is caused by climate change or land use planning. The paper achieves this using the case study research design with data drawn from both primary and secondary sources, specifically, review and synthesis of relevant literature and interviews with state agencies and 100 households. The findings showed variations in responses on the major cause of flooding—climate change and weak enforcement of land use planning. However, most households (52%) and all agency officials, supported by climate change-flood occurrence data revealed that floods in Accra are mostly human induced. Due to population growth, the city has expanded onto wetlands and flood-prone areas, thus distracting the natural flow of water. This paper, therefore, supports the school of thought that the flooding occurrence in Accra, among others, is caused by poor and uncoordinated land use planning efforts which is as a result of several institutional constraints. A well-maintained physical development such as the protection of wetlands by city authorities will go a long way to minimise the perennial occurrence of flood events and the associated impacts. |
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| AbstractList | Over the years, climate change and land use planning are considered debateable perspectives on the true cause of the perennial flooding in many African cities, with inconclusiveness on the subject matter. This paper thus contributes to the debate with trend analysis on which of the two perspectives is the major cause of the perennial flooding situation in African cities, taking Accra as a study case. The focus of this paper is therefore to examine the nature of flooding to succinctly draw a justified conclusion on the deliberations regarding whether flooding in Accra is caused by climate change or land use planning. The paper achieves this using the case study research design with data drawn from both primary and secondary sources, specifically, review and synthesis of relevant literature and interviews with state agencies and 100 households. The findings showed variations in responses on the major cause of flooding—climate change and weak enforcement of land use planning. However, most households (52%) and all agency officials, supported by climate change-flood occurrence data revealed that floods in Accra are mostly human induced. Due to population growth, the city has expanded onto wetlands and flood-prone areas, thus distracting the natural flow of water. This paper, therefore, supports the school of thought that the flooding occurrence in Accra, among others, is caused by poor and uncoordinated land use planning efforts which is as a result of several institutional constraints. A well-maintained physical development such as the protection of wetlands by city authorities will go a long way to minimise the perennial occurrence of flood events and the associated impacts. |
| ArticleNumber | 121 |
| Author | Takyi, Stephen Appiah Amaglo, Jedidiah Nusinyo Amponsah, Owusu Mensah, Henry Asibey, Michael Osei |
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| Keywords | Urbanization Climate change Regulations Accra Flooding Land uses |
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| References | AmoakoCBrutal presence or convenient absence: the role of the state in the politics of flooding in informal Accra, GhanaGeoforum20167751610.1016/j.geoforum.2016.10.003 OludareABashirOOlusegunABuilding capabilities for flood disaster and hazard preparedness and risk reduction in Nigeria: need for spatial planning and land managementJ Sustain Dev Afr20121414558 Attipoe S (2014) An assessment of flood mitigation measures in Accra, Ghana (Masters). Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. Retrieved from http://ir.knust.edu.gh/bitstream/123456789/7044/1/ATTIPOE%2c%20SELASIE%20KOFI.pdf Chan NW (2017) Urbanization, climate change and cities: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development. A paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering Society (APCBEES) International Conference at: School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Volume: 1 OosterbaanCArkuGAsieduAB‘Conversion of residential units to commercial spaces in Accra, Ghana: a policy DilemmaInt Plan Stud2012171456610.1080/13563475.2011.638185 Poku-BoansiMAmoakoCOwusu-AnsahJKCobbinahPBWhat the state does but fails: Exploring smart options for urban flood risk management in informal Accra, GhanaCity Environ Interact2020510003810.1016/j.cacint.2020.100038a CobbinahPBPoku-BoansiMPeprahCUrban environmental problems in GhanaEnviron Dev201723334610.1016/j.envdev.2017.05.001 Lambini CK (2009) Land reforms and conservation in Ghana, Oral Presentation at the 1st Society for Conservation Biology—Africa Section Conference, Ghana, 2009 Chapter one: Introduction Chapter Three: Land Management and Ref’, (February 2009). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1307/6/34/342047. Gyimah KA (2017) Building safer cities: assessing green infrastructure for storm water management at Kwame Nkrumah interchange, Accra. In: The Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Infrastructure Development in Africa, 12th April, 2017, Knust, Ghana AmoakoCFrimpong-BoamahEThe three-dimensional causes of flooding in Accra, Ghana’Int J Urban Sustain Dev20157110912910.1080/19463138.2014.984720 KorahPICobbinahPBNunboguAMSpatial planning in Ghana: exploring the contradictionsPlan Pract Res201732436138410.1080/02697459.2017.1378977 Thurman KG (2010) Land use regulations and urban planning initiatives in Accra, Ghana. PLAN A6211.001 Advanced Issues in Development Planning. http://mci.ei.columbia.edu/files/2013/03/Land-Use-Regulations-and-Urban-Planning-Initiatives-in-Accra-Ghana.pdf. Accessed 31 Aug 2020 Stuart JD, Lindsay RA (2006) Global climate change triggered by global warming. A position paper from the center for Inquiry Office of public Policy. https://www.centerforinquiry.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/global-climate-change_1.pdf. Accessed 31 Aug 2020 TrenberthKEChanges in precipitation with climate changeClim Res20114712313810.3354/cr00953 RehmanJSohaibabOAsifMPradhanabBApplying systems thinking to flood disaster management for a sustainable developmentInt J Disaster Risk Reduct20193610110110.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101101 Asumadu-SarkodieSOwusu-PhebeARufanguraPImpact analysis of flood in Accra, GhanaAdv Appl Sci Res2015695378 Accra Metropolitan Assembly (2018) 2018–2021 Metropolitan medium-term development plan, development planning unit. Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), Accra, Ghana Abugtane AF (2015) Assessing the effectiveness of physical development planning and control mechanisms in Ghana: The Experience of Wa Municipality.’ Kumasi, p. 139. Appiah WK (2012) The management of urban land in Ghana: the case of Accra and Kumasi metropolitan areas. A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Development Policy and Planning Agboklu G (2015) Why the Accra floods occur—reasons from scientific studies. https://laboneexpress.com/2015/06/why-the-accra-floods-occur-reasons-from-scientific-studies/. Accessed 31 Aug 2020 Afornope EK (2016) Flood vulnerability and adaptation in Accra: examining aspects of both climate and non-climate factors. A thesis submitted to the University of Ghana, Legon in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of M.Phil Geography and RESOURCE Development Degree Ghana Statistical Service (2014) 2010 Population and housing census. Analytical report of Accra Metropolitan Area, Accra, Ghana: Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) DouglasIANAlamKMaghendaMMcdonnellYMcleanLCampbellJUnjust waters: climate change, flooding and the urban poor in AfricaEnviron Urban200820118720510.1177/0956247808089156 UN-International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN-ISDR) (2015) Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015, International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). 9789211320282 KarleyNKFlooding and physical planning in urban areas in West Africa: situational analysis of Accr, GhanaTheor Empir Res Urban Manag20094132541 KhanAZClimate change: cause and effectJ Environ Earth Sci2012244853 Rain D, Engstrom R, Ludlow C, Antos S (2011) Accra Ghana: a city vulnerable to flooding and drought-induced migration. http://unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/GRHS2011CaseStudyChapter04Accra.pdf MarchioriLMaystadtJFSchumacherIThe impact of weather anomalies on migration in sub-Saharan AfricaJ Environ Econ Manag201263335537410.1016/j.jeem.2012.02.001 Okyere CY, Yira Y, Gilbenbach D (2013) The problem of annual occurrences of floods in Accra: An integration of hydrological, economic and political perspectives. Bonn. Retrieved from University of Bonn website: http://www.zef.de/fileadmin/downloads/forum/docprog/Termpapers/2012_2_Gilgenbach_Okyere_Yacouba.pdf Tengan C (2017) Addressing flood challenges in Ghana: a case of the Accra Metropolis. In: A paper presented at 5th International Conference on Infrastructure Development in Africa AmoakoCInkoomDKBThe production of flood vulnerability in Accra, Ghana: re-thinking flooding and informal urbanizationUrban Stud201755132903292210.1177/0042098016686526 AdomDHusseinEKJoeATheoretical and conceptual framework: mandatory ingredients of a quality researchInt J Sci Res20187169 AsibeyMOCobbinahPBBrinkmannRThe evidence for climate change on our planetThe Palgrave handbook of global sustainability2022ChamPalgrave Macmillan10.1007/978-3-030-38948-2_23-1 Afeku, K. (2005). Urbanization and flooding in Accra, Ghana. Accessed at https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=miami1123271331anddisposition=inline on 31/08/2020 MensahHAhadzieDKCauses, impacts and coping strategies of floods in Ghana: a systematic reviewSN Appl Sci20202579210.1007/s42452-020-2548-z AwuahKGBHammondNFDeterminants of low land use planning regulation compliance rate in GhanaHabitat Int2014412014172310.1016/j.habitatint.2013.06.002 Bhattacherjee A (2012) Introduction to research, social science research: principles, methods, and practices. In: Textbooks collection. https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198961091657 Mcgranahan G, Satterthwaite D (2014) Urbanization concepts and trends. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London. Accessed at https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10709IIED.pdf AhadzieDKProverbsDGEmerging issues in the management of floods in GhanaInt J Saf Secur Eng201112182192 JhaAKBlochRLamondJCities and flooding: a guide to integrated urban flood risk management for the 21st century2012Washington, D.C.World Bank10.1596/978-0-8213-8866-2 CobbinahPBAsibeyMOOpoku-GyamfiMPeprahCUrban planning and climate change in GhanaJ Urban Manag201910.1016/j.jum.2019.02.002 PI Korah (438_CR26) 2017; 32 438_CR5 NK Karley (438_CR24) 2009; 4 438_CR6 MO Asibey (438_CR12) 2022 438_CR21 C Amoako (438_CR10) 2017; 55 438_CR22 IAN Douglas (438_CR20) 2008; 20 C Amoako (438_CR8) 2016; 77 438_CR41 438_CR29 438_CR27 M Poku-Boansi (438_CR34) 2020; 5 H Mensah (438_CR30) 2020; 2 AZ Khan (438_CR25) 2012; 2 D Adom (438_CR3) 2018; 7 A Oludare (438_CR32) 2012; 14 PB Cobbinah (438_CR19) 2019 438_CR1 S Asumadu-Sarkodie (438_CR13) 2015; 6 438_CR2 438_CR11 438_CR4 L Marchiori (438_CR28) 2012; 63 438_CR35 C Oosterbaan (438_CR33) 2012; 17 AK Jha (438_CR23) 2012 438_CR31 DK Ahadzie (438_CR7) 2011; 1 C Amoako (438_CR9) 2015; 7 438_CR14 KGB Awuah (438_CR15) 2014; 41 PB Cobbinah (438_CR18) 2017; 23 438_CR37 438_CR16 438_CR38 KE Trenberth (438_CR40) 2011; 47 438_CR17 J Rehman (438_CR36) 2019; 36 438_CR39 |
| References_xml | – reference: KhanAZClimate change: cause and effectJ Environ Earth Sci2012244853 – reference: KarleyNKFlooding and physical planning in urban areas in West Africa: situational analysis of Accr, GhanaTheor Empir Res Urban Manag20094132541 – reference: TrenberthKEChanges in precipitation with climate changeClim Res20114712313810.3354/cr00953 – reference: Rain D, Engstrom R, Ludlow C, Antos S (2011) Accra Ghana: a city vulnerable to flooding and drought-induced migration. http://unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/GRHS2011CaseStudyChapter04Accra.pdf – reference: OludareABashirOOlusegunABuilding capabilities for flood disaster and hazard preparedness and risk reduction in Nigeria: need for spatial planning and land managementJ Sustain Dev Afr20121414558 – reference: Accra Metropolitan Assembly (2018) 2018–2021 Metropolitan medium-term development plan, development planning unit. Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), Accra, Ghana – reference: MensahHAhadzieDKCauses, impacts and coping strategies of floods in Ghana: a systematic reviewSN Appl Sci20202579210.1007/s42452-020-2548-z – reference: Lambini CK (2009) Land reforms and conservation in Ghana, Oral Presentation at the 1st Society for Conservation Biology—Africa Section Conference, Ghana, 2009 Chapter one: Introduction Chapter Three: Land Management and Ref’, (February 2009). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1307/6/34/342047. – reference: AsibeyMOCobbinahPBBrinkmannRThe evidence for climate change on our planetThe Palgrave handbook of global sustainability2022ChamPalgrave Macmillan10.1007/978-3-030-38948-2_23-1 – reference: AmoakoCFrimpong-BoamahEThe three-dimensional causes of flooding in Accra, Ghana’Int J Urban Sustain Dev20157110912910.1080/19463138.2014.984720 – reference: Poku-BoansiMAmoakoCOwusu-AnsahJKCobbinahPBWhat the state does but fails: Exploring smart options for urban flood risk management in informal Accra, GhanaCity Environ Interact2020510003810.1016/j.cacint.2020.100038a – reference: RehmanJSohaibabOAsifMPradhanabBApplying systems thinking to flood disaster management for a sustainable developmentInt J Disaster Risk Reduct20193610110110.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101101 – reference: MarchioriLMaystadtJFSchumacherIThe impact of weather anomalies on migration in sub-Saharan AfricaJ Environ Econ Manag201263335537410.1016/j.jeem.2012.02.001 – reference: Afeku, K. (2005). Urbanization and flooding in Accra, Ghana. Accessed at https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=miami1123271331anddisposition=inline on 31/08/2020 – reference: AhadzieDKProverbsDGEmerging issues in the management of floods in GhanaInt J Saf Secur Eng201112182192 – reference: Bhattacherjee A (2012) Introduction to research, social science research: principles, methods, and practices. In: Textbooks collection. https://doi.org/10.1351/pac198961091657 – reference: Tengan C (2017) Addressing flood challenges in Ghana: a case of the Accra Metropolis. In: A paper presented at 5th International Conference on Infrastructure Development in Africa – reference: AmoakoCBrutal presence or convenient absence: the role of the state in the politics of flooding in informal Accra, GhanaGeoforum20167751610.1016/j.geoforum.2016.10.003 – reference: Okyere CY, Yira Y, Gilbenbach D (2013) The problem of annual occurrences of floods in Accra: An integration of hydrological, economic and political perspectives. Bonn. Retrieved from University of Bonn website: http://www.zef.de/fileadmin/downloads/forum/docprog/Termpapers/2012_2_Gilgenbach_Okyere_Yacouba.pdf – reference: AmoakoCInkoomDKBThe production of flood vulnerability in Accra, Ghana: re-thinking flooding and informal urbanizationUrban Stud201755132903292210.1177/0042098016686526 – reference: KorahPICobbinahPBNunboguAMSpatial planning in Ghana: exploring the contradictionsPlan Pract Res201732436138410.1080/02697459.2017.1378977 – reference: CobbinahPBPoku-BoansiMPeprahCUrban environmental problems in GhanaEnviron Dev201723334610.1016/j.envdev.2017.05.001 – reference: DouglasIANAlamKMaghendaMMcdonnellYMcleanLCampbellJUnjust waters: climate change, flooding and the urban poor in AfricaEnviron Urban200820118720510.1177/0956247808089156 – reference: AwuahKGBHammondNFDeterminants of low land use planning regulation compliance rate in GhanaHabitat Int2014412014172310.1016/j.habitatint.2013.06.002 – reference: OosterbaanCArkuGAsieduAB‘Conversion of residential units to commercial spaces in Accra, Ghana: a policy DilemmaInt Plan Stud2012171456610.1080/13563475.2011.638185 – reference: Appiah WK (2012) The management of urban land in Ghana: the case of Accra and Kumasi metropolitan areas. A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Development Policy and Planning – reference: Mcgranahan G, Satterthwaite D (2014) Urbanization concepts and trends. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London. Accessed at https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10709IIED.pdf – reference: Thurman KG (2010) Land use regulations and urban planning initiatives in Accra, Ghana. PLAN A6211.001 Advanced Issues in Development Planning. http://mci.ei.columbia.edu/files/2013/03/Land-Use-Regulations-and-Urban-Planning-Initiatives-in-Accra-Ghana.pdf. Accessed 31 Aug 2020 – reference: Attipoe S (2014) An assessment of flood mitigation measures in Accra, Ghana (Masters). Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. Retrieved from http://ir.knust.edu.gh/bitstream/123456789/7044/1/ATTIPOE%2c%20SELASIE%20KOFI.pdf – reference: AdomDHusseinEKJoeATheoretical and conceptual framework: mandatory ingredients of a quality researchInt J Sci Res20187169 – reference: Asumadu-SarkodieSOwusu-PhebeARufanguraPImpact analysis of flood in Accra, GhanaAdv Appl Sci Res2015695378 – reference: Stuart JD, Lindsay RA (2006) Global climate change triggered by global warming. A position paper from the center for Inquiry Office of public Policy. https://www.centerforinquiry.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/global-climate-change_1.pdf. Accessed 31 Aug 2020 – reference: Abugtane AF (2015) Assessing the effectiveness of physical development planning and control mechanisms in Ghana: The Experience of Wa Municipality.’ Kumasi, p. 139. – reference: JhaAKBlochRLamondJCities and flooding: a guide to integrated urban flood risk management for the 21st century2012Washington, D.C.World Bank10.1596/978-0-8213-8866-2 – reference: Agboklu G (2015) Why the Accra floods occur—reasons from scientific studies. https://laboneexpress.com/2015/06/why-the-accra-floods-occur-reasons-from-scientific-studies/. Accessed 31 Aug 2020 – reference: Gyimah KA (2017) Building safer cities: assessing green infrastructure for storm water management at Kwame Nkrumah interchange, Accra. In: The Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Infrastructure Development in Africa, 12th April, 2017, Knust, Ghana – reference: Chan NW (2017) Urbanization, climate change and cities: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development. A paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering Society (APCBEES) International Conference at: School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Volume: 1 – reference: Afornope EK (2016) Flood vulnerability and adaptation in Accra: examining aspects of both climate and non-climate factors. A thesis submitted to the University of Ghana, Legon in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of M.Phil Geography and RESOURCE Development Degree – reference: Ghana Statistical Service (2014) 2010 Population and housing census. 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| Title | The dilemma of flood occurrence in Accra: climate change or poor land use planning and practices? |
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