Review: Hydrogeology of weathered crystalline/hard-rock aquifers—guidelines for the operational survey and management of their groundwater resources

Hard rocks or crystalline rocks (i.e., plutonic and metamorphic rocks) constitute the basement of all continents, and are particularly exposed at the surface in the large shields of Africa, India, North and South America, Australia and Europe. They were, and are still in some cases, exposed to deep...

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Published inHydrogeology journal Vol. 29; no. 8; pp. 2561 - 2594
Main Authors Lachassagne, Patrick, Dewandel, Benoît, Wyns, Robert
Format Journal Article
LanguageEnglish
Published Berlin/Heidelberg Springer Berlin Heidelberg 01.12.2021
Springer Nature B.V
Springer Verlag
Subjects
Africa
Aquatic Pollution
Aquifer models
Aquifers
Australia
Biotite
Crystal structure
Crystalline rocks
Crystallinity
Dikes
drainage
Earth and Environmental Science
Earth Sciences
Environmental Sciences
Europe
Geology
Geophysics/Geodesy
Groundwater
Groundwater resources
Hydraulic conductivity
Hydrogeology
Hydrology
Hydrology/Water Resources
India
Isotopes
Joints (timber)
Lithology
Metamorphic rocks
Minerals
Permeability
Progress in fractured-rock hydrogeology
Quarrying
saprolite
South America
Surveying
surveys
Tunnels
Waste Water Technology
Water Management
Water Pollution Control
Water Quality/Water Pollution
Water resources
Water wells
Weathering
South America
Australia
Europe
Africa
India
Applied hydrogeology
Fractured rocks
Crystalline rocks
Stratiform fractured layer
Saprolite
saprolite
fracture rocks
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Abstract Hard rocks or crystalline rocks (i.e., plutonic and metamorphic rocks) constitute the basement of all continents, and are particularly exposed at the surface in the large shields of Africa, India, North and South America, Australia and Europe. They were, and are still in some cases, exposed to deep weathering processes. The storativity and hydraulic conductivity of hard rocks, and thus their groundwater resources, are controlled by these weathering processes, which created weathering profiles. Hard-rock aquifers then develop mainly within the first 100 m below ground surface, within these weathering profiles. Where partially or noneroded, these weathering profiles comprise: (1) a capacitive but generally low-permeability unconsolidated layer (the saprolite), located immediately above (2) the permeable stratiform fractured layer (SFL). The development of the SFL’s fracture network is the consequence of the stress induced by the swelling of some minerals, notably biotite. To a much lesser extent, further weathering, and thus hydraulic conductivity, also develops deeper below the SFL, at the periphery of or within preexisting geological discontinuities (joints, dykes, veins, lithological contacts, etc.). The demonstration and recognition of this conceptual model have enabled understanding of the functioning of such aquifers. Moreover, this conceptual model has facilitated a comprehensive corpus of applied methodologies in hydrogeology and geology, which are described in this review paper such as water-well siting, mapping hydrogeological potentialities from local to country scale, quantitative management, hydrodynamical modeling, protection of hard-rock groundwater resources (even in thermal and mineral aquifers), computing the drainage discharge of tunnels, quarrying, etc.
AbstractList Hard rocks or crystalline rocks (i.e., plutonic and metamorphic rocks) constitute the basement of all continents, and are particularly exposed at the surface in the large shields of Africa, India, North and South America, Australia and Europe. They were, and are still in some cases, exposed to deep weathering processes. The storativity and hydraulic conductivity of hard rocks, and thus their groundwater resources, are controlled by these weathering processes, which created weathering profiles. Hard-rock aquifers then develop mainly within the first 100 m below ground surface, within these weathering profiles. Where partially or noneroded, these weathering profiles comprise: (1) a capacitive but generally low-permeability unconsolidated layer (the saprolite), located immediately above (2) the permeable stratiform fractured layer (SFL). The development of the SFL’s fracture network is the consequence of the stress induced by the swelling of some minerals, notably biotite. To a much lesser extent, further weathering, and thus hydraulic conductivity, also develops deeper below the SFL, at the periphery of or within preexisting geological discontinuities (joints, dykes, veins, lithological contacts, etc.). The demonstration and recognition of this conceptual model have enabled understanding of the functioning of such aquifers. Moreover, this conceptual model has facilitated a comprehensive corpus of applied methodologies in hydrogeology and geology, which are described in this review paper such as water-well siting, mapping hydrogeological potentialities from local to country scale, quantitative management, hydrodynamical modeling, protection of hard-rock groundwater resources (even in thermal and mineral aquifers), computing the drainage discharge of tunnels, quarrying, etc.
Hard rocks or crystalline rocks (i.e., plutonic and metamorphic rocks) constitute the basement of all continents, and are particularly exposed at the surface in the large shields of Africa, India, North and South America, Australia and Europe. They were, and are still in some cases, exposed to deep weathering processes. The storativity and hydraulic conductivity of hard rocks, and thus their groundwater resources, are controlled by these weathering processes, which created weathering profiles. Hard-rock aquifers then develop mainly within the first 100 m below ground surface, within these weathering profiles. Where partially or noneroded, these weathering profiles comprise: (1) a capacitive but generally low-permeability unconsolidated layer (the saprolite), located immediately above (2) the permeable stratiform fractured layer (SFL). The development of the SFL’s fracture network is the consequence of the stress induced by the swelling of some minerals, notably biotite. To a much lesser extent, further weathering, and thus hydraulic conductivity, also develops deeper below the SFL, at the periphery of or within preexisting geological discontinuities (joints, dykes, veins, lithological contacts, etc.). The demonstration and recognition of this conceptual model have enabled understanding of the functioning of such aquifers. Moreover, this conceptual model has facilitated a comprehensive corpus of applied methodologies in hydrogeology and geology, which are described in this review paper such as water-well siting, mapping hydrogeological potentialities from local to country scale, quantitative management, hydrodynamical modeling, protection of hard-rock groundwater resources (even in thermal and mineral aquifers), computing the drainage discharge of tunnels, quarrying, etc.
Hard rocks or crystalline rocks (i.e., plutonic and metamorphic rocks) constitute the basement of all continents, and are particularly exposed at the surface in the large shields of Africa, India, North and South America, Australia and Europe. They were, and are still in some cases, exposed to deep weathering processes. The storativity and hydraulic conductivity of hard rocks, and thus their groundwater resources, are controlled by these weathering processes, which created weathering profiles. Hard-rock aquifers then develop mainly within the first 100 m below ground surface, within these weathering profiles. Where partially or noneroded, these weathering profiles comprise: (1) a capacitive but generally low-permeability unconsolidated layer (the saprolite), located immediately above (2) the permeable stratiform fractured layer (SFL). The development of the SFL’s fracture network is the consequence of the stress induced by the swelling of some minerals, notably biotite. To a much lesser extent, further weathering, and thus hydraulic conductivity, also develops deeper below the SFL, at the periphery of or within preexisting geological discontinuities (joints, dykes, veins, lithological contacts, etc.). The demonstration and recognition of this conceptual model have enabled understanding of the functioning of such aquifers. Moreover, this conceptual model has facilitated a comprehensive corpus of applied methodologies in hydrogeology and geology, which are described in this review paper such as water-well siting, mapping hydrogeological potentialities from local to country scale, quantitative management, hydrodynamical modeling, protection of hard-rock groundwater resources (even in thermal and mineral aquifers), computing the drainage discharge of tunnels, quarrying, etc. Las rocas duras o cristalinas (es decir, las rocas plutónicas y metamórficas) constituyen el basamento en todos los continentes, y están particularmente expuestas en la superficie en los grandes escudos de África, India, América del Norte y del Sur, Australia y Europa. Estas rocas han estado, y siguen estando en algunos casos, expuestas a procesos de meteorización profunda. El almacenamiento y la conductividad hidráulica de las rocas duras, y por tanto sus recursos hídricos subterráneos, están controladas por estos procesos de meteorización, que generaron perfiles de meteorización. Los acuíferos de rocas duras se desarrollan principalmente en los primeros 100 m por debajo de la superficie del suelo, dentro de estos perfiles de meteorización. Cuando están parcialmente erosionados o no, estos perfiles de meteorización comprenden (1) una capa no consolidada con capacidad de almacenamiento pero generalmente de baja permeabilidad (el saprolito), situada inmediatamente por encima de (2) una capa permeable fracturada de forma estratificada (SFL). El desarrollo de la red de fracturas de la SFL es consecuencia de la tensión inducida por el engrosamiento de algunos minerales, especialmente la biotita. En mucha menor medida, la meteorización adicional, y por tanto la conductividad hidráulica, también se desarrolla a mayor profundidad por debajo del perfil de meteorización, en la periferia o dentro de las discontinuidades geológicas preexistentes (fallas, diaclasas, diques, vetas, contactos litológicos, etc.). La demostración y el reconocimiento de este modelo conceptual han permitido comprender el funcionamiento de dichos acuíferos. Además, este modelo conceptual ha facilitado un amplio conjunto de metodologías aplicadas en hidrogeología y geología, que se describen en este artículo de revisión, como la localización de pozos de agua, la cartografía de las potencialidades hidrogeológicas desde la escala local a la regional, la gestión cuantitativa, la modelización hidrodinámica, la protección de los recursos hídricos subterráneos de roca dura (incluso en acuíferos termales y mineralizados), el cálculo de la descarga de drenaje de túneles, la explotación de canteras, etc. Les roches de socle ou cristallines (c’est-à-dire les roches plutoniques et métamorphiques) constituent le substratum de tous les continents et affleurent tout particulièrement au sein des grands boucliers, en Afrique, Inde, Amérique du Nord et du Sud, Australie et Europe. Elles ont été, et sont encore dans certains cas, soumises à des processus d’altération profonde. Depuis une quinzaine d’années, il a été formellement démontré que l’emmagasinement et la perméabilité des roches de socle, et donc leurs ressources en eau souterraine, sont contrôlés par ces processus d’altération qui ont conduit au développement de profils d’altération. Les aquifères de socle se développent principalement dans les 100 premiers mètres sous la surface du sol, au sein de ces profils d’altération. Lorsque ces profils ne sont pas partiellement ou totalement érodés, ils comprennent, de haut en bas: (1) une couche non consolidée, capacitive mais généralement peu perméable (la saprolite), située immédiatement au-dessus (2) de l’horizon fracturé stratiforme (SFL). Le développement du réseau de fractures de l’SFL est la conséquence des contraintes induites par le gonflement de certains minéraux, notamment la biotite. Dans une bien moindre mesure, l’altération, et par conséquent la perméabilité, se développent aussi plus profondément sous le profil d’altération, à la périphérie ou au sein de discontinuités géologiques préexistantes (joints, dykes, filons, contacts lithologiques, etc.). La démonstration et la reconnaissance de ce modèle conceptuel ont permis de comprendre le fonctionnement de ces aquifères. En outre, cela a permis de développer un corpus complet de méthodologies appliquées en hydrogéologie et en géologie, qui sont décrites dans le présent article de synthèse, telles que: l’implantation des forages d’eau, la cartographie des potentialités hydrogéologiques de l’échelle locale à l’échelle nationale, la gestion quantitative, la modélisation hydrodynamique, la protection des ressources en eaux souterraines des roches de socle (y compris dans le cas des aquifères thermaux et minéraux), le calcul du débit d’exhaure des tunnels, l’exploitation des carrières de roches dures, etc. Rochas duras ou cristalinas (ex., rochas plutônicas ou metamórficas) constituem o embasamento de todos os continentes, e são particularmente expostas na superfície de grandes escudos da África, Índia, América do Norte e Sul, Austrália e Europa. Eles foram, e ainda são em alguns casos, expostos a profundos processos de intemperismo. O armazenamento e a condutividade hidráulica de rochas duras, e, portanto, seus recursos hídricos, são controlados pelos processos de intemperismo, que criaram perfis de intemperismo. Aquíferos de rochas duras desenvolvem-se principalmente nos primeiros 100 m abaixo da superfície, dentro do perfil de intemperismo. Onde parcialmente ou não erodidos, estes perfis de intemperismo possuem: (1) uma camada não consolidada (o saprólito) com capacidade, mas geralmente baixa permeabilidade localizada imediatamente acima (2) de uma camada estratiforme fraturada (CEF) permeável. O desenvolvimento da rede de fraturas da CEF é a consequência do estresse induzido pela dilatação de alguns minerais, notavelmente a biotita. Para uma extensão muito menor, maior intemperismo, e, portanto, condutividade hidráulica, também se desenvolve mais profundamente abaixo do perfil de intemperismo, na periferia da ou dentro de descontinuidades geológicas preexistentes (juntas, diques, veios, contatos litológicos, etc.). A demonstração e reconhecimento deste modelo conceitual facilitou uma abrangente coleção de metodologias aplicadas em hidrogeologia e geologia, que são descritas brevemente neste artigo de revisão, como localização de poços de água, mapeamento de potencialidades hidrogeológicas de escala local a de países, gestão quantitativa, modelagem hidrodinâmica, proteção de recursos hídricos subterrâneos de rochas duras (mesmo em aquíferos termais e minerais), cálculo da vazão de drenagem de túneis, mineração, etc.
Author Dewandel, Benoît
Wyns, Robert
Lachassagne, Patrick
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  organization: HSM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, IRD
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  givenname: Benoît
  surname: Dewandel
  fullname: Dewandel, Benoît
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  givenname: Robert
  surname: Wyns
  fullname: Wyns, Robert
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BackLink https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-03321731$$DView record in HAL
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DocumentTitle_FL Article de synthèse: Hydrogéologie des aquifères de socle/cristallins—lignes directrices pour la prospection opérationnelle et la gestion de leurs ressources en eau souterraine
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ID FETCH-LOGICAL-a361t-af5726d492c51fa10bb5eba84391311fc79e1257dcad22c7acd834441d2d6d8b3
IEDL.DBID BENPR
ISSN 1431-2174
IngestDate Wed Jul 16 07:49:09 EDT 2025
Fri Jul 11 06:06:25 EDT 2025
Fri Jul 25 19:00:54 EDT 2025
Fri Feb 21 02:47:07 EST 2025
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Issue 8
Keywords Applied hydrogeology
Fractured rocks
Crystalline rocks
Stratiform fractured layer
Saprolite
saprolite
fracture rocks
Language English
License Attribution: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by
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ORCID 0000-0001-6585-0741
0000-0002-2050-8819
OpenAccessLink https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-021-02339-7
PQID 2601736356
PQPubID 55405
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PublicationDate 2021-12-01
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  year: 2021
  text: 2021-12-01
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PublicationSubtitle Official Journal of the International Association of Hydrogeologists
PublicationTitle Hydrogeology journal
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Publisher Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Springer Nature B.V
Springer Verlag
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SSID ssj0004173
Score 2.6100688
Snippet Hard rocks or crystalline rocks (i.e., plutonic and metamorphic rocks) constitute the basement of all continents, and are particularly exposed at the surface...
SourceID hal
proquest
springer
SourceType Open Access Repository
Aggregation Database
Publisher
StartPage 2561
SubjectTerms Africa
Aquatic Pollution
Aquifer models
Aquifers
Australia
Biotite
Crystal structure
Crystalline rocks
Crystallinity
Dikes
drainage
Earth and Environmental Science
Earth Sciences
Environmental Sciences
Europe
Geology
Geophysics/Geodesy
Groundwater
Groundwater resources
Hydraulic conductivity
Hydrogeology
Hydrology
Hydrology/Water Resources
India
Isotopes
Joints (timber)
Lithology
Metamorphic rocks
Minerals
Permeability
Progress in fractured-rock hydrogeology
Quarrying
saprolite
South America
Surveying
surveys
Tunnels
Waste Water Technology
Water Management
Water Pollution Control
Water Quality/Water Pollution
Water resources
Water wells
Weathering
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Title Review: Hydrogeology of weathered crystalline/hard-rock aquifers—guidelines for the operational survey and management of their groundwater resources
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https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-03321731
Volume 29
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