Origin of Oxides and Oxide-Related Pores in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Parts
Fatigue cracks grow from pores at the surface of components that were produced by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). In AlSi10Mg components produced by LPBF, large oxides apparently interfere with consolidation of powder into the melt pool, contributing to part porosity; the oxides may also nucleate hy...
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| Published in | Structural Integrity of Additive Manufactured Materials and Parts pp. 45 - 60 |
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| Language | English |
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| ISBN | 9780803177086 0803177089 |
| DOI | 10.1520/STP163120190137 |
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| Abstract | Fatigue cracks grow from pores at the surface of components that were produced by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). In AlSi10Mg components produced by LPBF, large oxides apparently interfere with consolidation of powder into the melt pool, contributing to part porosity; the oxides may also nucleate hydrogen porosity. In previous work, it was found that the effect of such porosity on fatigue life could be predicted by measuring pores found on a sample size of a few square millimeters and extrapolating to the much larger surface of a fatigue test specimen. The aim of this work is to understand the fundamental origin of oxides in LPBF as a basis for controlling the defects. The sources considered here are the native oxide on the surface of metal powder and oxidation of hot spatter in the build chamber for the case of LPBF of UNS N07718 samples. Kinetic analysis indicates that the rate of oxidation of a spatter droplet would be controlled by the oxygen concentration in the build chamber. From measurement of the surface coverage of deposited oxide particles (apparently oxidized spatter) on the build surface, and estimating the thickness of these deposits, it is concluded that about twice as much oxidized spatter is deposited on the part surface (during building of each layer) than the amount of oxygen incorporated into the part from this source. A possible reason for this difference is that spatter oxides might be partially removed from the part surface during recoating. |
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| AbstractList | Fatigue cracks grow from pores at the surface of components that were produced by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). In AlSi10Mg components produced by LPBF, large oxides apparently interfere with consolidation of powder into the melt pool, contributing to part porosity; the oxides may also nucleate hydrogen porosity. In previous work, it was found that the effect of such porosity on fatigue life could be predicted by measuring pores found on a sample size of a few square millimeters and extrapolating to the much larger surface of a fatigue test specimen. The aim of this work is to understand the fundamental origin of oxides in LPBF as a basis for controlling the defects. The sources considered here are the native oxide on the surface of metal powder and oxidation of hot spatter in the build chamber for the case of LPBF of UNS N07718 samples. Kinetic analysis indicates that the rate of oxidation of a spatter droplet would be controlled by the oxygen concentration in the build chamber. From measurement of the surface coverage of deposited oxide particles (apparently oxidized spatter) on the build surface, and estimating the thickness of these deposits, it is concluded that about twice as much oxidized spatter is deposited on the part surface (during building of each layer) than the amount of oxygen incorporated into the part from this source. A possible reason for this difference is that spatter oxides might be partially removed from the part surface during recoating. |
| Author | Pistorius, P. Chris Tang, Ming Smith, Lonnie Ohtsuki, Tomio |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: Tomio surname: Ohtsuki fullname: Ohtsuki, Tomio organization: Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University – sequence: 2 givenname: Lonnie surname: Smith fullname: Smith, Lonnie organization: Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University – sequence: 3 givenname: Ming orcidid: 0000-0002-7111-1627 surname: Tang fullname: Tang, Ming organization: Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University – sequence: 4 givenname: P. Chris orcidid: 0000-0002-2966-1879 surname: Pistorius fullname: Pistorius, P. Chris organization: Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University |
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| DOI | 10.1520/STP163120190137 |
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| Notes | 2019-10-07 - 2019-10-10Fourth ASTM Symposium on Structural Integrity of Additive Manufactured Materials and PartsFort Washington, MD |
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| References | CampbellJ. , “An Overview of the Effects of Bifilms on the Structure and Properties of Cast Alloys,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B 37 (2006): 857–863, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02735006 TangM. and PistoriusP. C. , “Fatigue Life Prediction for AlSi10Mg Components Produced by Selective Laser Melting,” International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019): 479–490, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2019.04.015 GlueckaufE. , “Formulae for Diffusion into Spheres and Their Application to Chromatography,” Transactions of the Faraday Society 51 (1955): 1540–1551. WriedtH. A. , “The (Al-O) (Aluminum-Oxygen) System,” Bulletin of Alloy Phase Diagrams 6, no. 6 (1985): 548–553, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02887157 AmanoH. , YamaguchiY. , SasakiT. , SatoT. , IshimotoT. , and NakanoT. , “Effect of Oxygen Concentration on the Generation of Spatter during Fabrication via Selective Laser Melting,” Journal of Smart Processing 18 (2019): 102–105, https://doi.org/10.7791/jspmee.8.102 SzekelyJ. , EvansJ. W. , and SohnH. Y. , Solid-Gas Reactions (New York: Academic Press, 1976). LudwigT. , Di SabatinoM. , ArnbergL. , and DispinarD. , “Influence of Oxide Additions on the Porosity Development and Mechanical Properties of A356 Aluminium Alloy Castings,” International Journal of Metalcasting 6, no. 2 (April 2012): 41–50, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03355526 JohanssonT. I. , LundT. B. , and ÖlundP. L. J. , “A Review of Swedish Bearing Steel Manufacturing and Quality Assurance of Steel Products,” Journal of ASTM International 3, no. 10 (2006): 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1520/JAI14022 PottlacherG. , HosaeusH. , KaschnitzE. , and SeifterA. , “Thermophysical Properties of Solid and Liquid Inconel 718 Alloy,” Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy 31 (2002): 161–168, https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0692.2002.310301.x SudbrackC. K. , LerchB. A. , SmithT. A. , LocciI. E. , EllisD. L. , ThompsonA. C. , and RichardsB. , “Impact of Powder Variability on the Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior of Selective Laser Melted Alloy 718,” in Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Superalloy 718 & Derivatives: Energy, Aerospace, and Industrial Applications, ed. OttE. , LiuX. , AnderssonJ. , BiZ. , BockenstedtK. , DempsterI. , GrohJ , HeckK. , JablonskiP. , KaplanM. , Nagahama, andD. SudbrackC. (Cham, Switzerland: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, Springer, 2018), 89–113, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89480-5_5 GockelJ. , SheridanL. , KoerperB. , and WhipB. , “The Influence of Additive Manufacturing Processing Parameters on Surface Roughness and Fatigue Life,” International Journal of Fatigue 124 (2019): 380–388, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2019.03.025 AlexanderM. R. , ThompsonG. E. , and BeamsonG. , “Characterization of the Oxide/Hydroxide Surface of Aluminium Using X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy: A Procedure for Curve Fitting the O 1s Core Level,” Surface and Interface Analysis 29 (2000): 468–477, https://doi.org/10.1002/1096-9918(200007)29:7<468::AID-SIA890>3.0.CO;2-V SteinbergerR. L. and TreybalR. E. , “Mass Transfer from a Solid Soluble Sphere to a Flowing Liquid Stream,” AIChE Journal 6 (1960): 227–232, https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690060213 BidareP. , BitharasI. , WardR. M. , AttallahM. M. , and MooreA. J. , “Fluid and Particle Dynamics in Laser Powder Bed Fusion,” Acta Materialia 142 (2018): 107–120. AnderssonJ.-O. , HelanderT. , HöglundL. , ShiP. , and SundmanB. , “Thermo-Calc & DICTRA, Computational Tools for Materials Science,” Calphad 26 (2002): 273–312, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0364-5916(02)00037-8 LloydA. C. , NoëlJ. J. , McIntyreS. , and ShoesmithD. W. , “Cr, Mo and W Alloying Additions in Ni and Their Effect on Passivity,” Electrochimica Acta 49 (2004): 3015–3027, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2004.01.061 SimonelliM. , TuckC. , AboulkhairN. T. , MaskeryI. , AshcroftI. , WildmanR. D. , and HagueR. , “A Study on the Laser Spatter and the Oxidation Reactions during Selective Laser Melting of 316L Stainless Steel, Al-Si10-Mg, and Ti-6Al-4V,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 46 (2015): 3842–3851, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-015-2882-8 Standard Practice for Calculation of Mean Sizes/Diameters and Standard Deviations of Particle Size Distributions, ASTM E2578−07(2018) (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, approved January 1, 2018), https://doi.org/10.1520/E2578-07R18 KhairallahS. A. , AndersonA. T. , RubenchikA. , and KingW. E. , “Laser Powder-Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing: Physics of Complex Melt Flow and Formation Mechanisms of Pores, Spatter, and Denudation Zones,” Acta Materialia 108 (2016): 36–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.014 SheridanL. , GockelJ. E. , and Scott-EmuakporO. E. , “Primary Processing Parameters, Porosity Production, and Fatigue Prediction for Additively Manufactured Alloy 718,” Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance 28 (2019): 5387–5397, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-019-04305-7 MillsK. N. , Recommended Values of Thermophysical Properties for Selected Commercial Alloys (Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing, 2002). BirdR. B. , LightfootE. N. , and StewartW. E. , Transport Phenomena, Revised 2nd Ed. (New York: Wiley, 2007). TangM. and PistoriusP. C. , “Oxides, Porosity and Fatigue Performance of AlSi10Mg Parts Produced by Selective Laser Melting,” International Journal of Fatigue 94 (2017): 192–201, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2016.06.002 ZhengH. , LiH. , LangL. , GongS. , and GeY. , “Effects of Scan Speed on Vapor Plume Behavior and Spatter Generation in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes 36 (2018): 60–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.09.011 LéopoldG. , NadotY. , BillaudeauT. , and MendezJ. , “Influence of Artificial and Casting Defects on Fatigue Strength of Moulded Components in Ti-6Al-4V Alloy,” Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures 38 (2015): 1026–1041, https://doi.org/10.1111/ffe.12326 PoulinJ.-R. , KreitcbergA. , TerriaultP. , and BrailovskiV. , “Long Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of Laser Powder Bed-Fused Inconel 625 with Intentionally Seeded Porosity,” International Journal of Fatigue 127 (2019): 144–156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2019.06.008 SasaiK. and MuzikamaY. , “Reoxidation Behavior of Molten Steel in Tundish,” ISIJ International 40 (2000): 40–47, https://doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.40.40 Rumble, J. R. Jr., ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 100th Ed. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2019). SheridanL. , Scott-EmuakporO. E. , GeorgeT. , and GockelJ. E. , “Relating Porosity to Fatigue Failure in Additively Manufactured Alloy 718,” Materials Science and Engineering: A 727 (2018): 170–176, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.04.075 National Institute of Standards and Technology, “DeskTop Spectrum Analyzer-II (DTSA-II): Introduction,” http://web.archive.org/web/20191030175906/https://cstl.nist.gov/div837/837.02/epq/dtsa2 JoysJ. , “Production of Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Powder,” in ASM Handbook, Volume 7: Powder Metallurgy, ed. SamalP. and NewkirkJ. (Metals Park, OH: ASM International, 2015), 569–580, https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006065 GongH. , RafiK. , GuH. , StarrT. , and StuckerB. , “Analysis of Defect Generation in Ti–6Al–4V Parts Made Using Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing Processes,” Additive Manufacturing 1 (2014): 87–98, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2014.08.002 |
| References_xml | – reference: PoulinJ.-R. , KreitcbergA. , TerriaultP. , and BrailovskiV. , “Long Fatigue Crack Propagation Behavior of Laser Powder Bed-Fused Inconel 625 with Intentionally Seeded Porosity,” International Journal of Fatigue 127 (2019): 144–156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2019.06.008 – reference: SudbrackC. K. , LerchB. A. , SmithT. A. , LocciI. E. , EllisD. L. , ThompsonA. C. , and RichardsB. , “Impact of Powder Variability on the Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior of Selective Laser Melted Alloy 718,” in Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Superalloy 718 & Derivatives: Energy, Aerospace, and Industrial Applications, ed. OttE. , LiuX. , AnderssonJ. , BiZ. , BockenstedtK. , DempsterI. , GrohJ , HeckK. , JablonskiP. , KaplanM. , Nagahama, andD. SudbrackC. (Cham, Switzerland: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, Springer, 2018), 89–113, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-89480-5_5 – reference: SimonelliM. , TuckC. , AboulkhairN. T. , MaskeryI. , AshcroftI. , WildmanR. D. , and HagueR. , “A Study on the Laser Spatter and the Oxidation Reactions during Selective Laser Melting of 316L Stainless Steel, Al-Si10-Mg, and Ti-6Al-4V,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 46 (2015): 3842–3851, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-015-2882-8 – reference: ZhengH. , LiH. , LangL. , GongS. , and GeY. , “Effects of Scan Speed on Vapor Plume Behavior and Spatter Generation in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing,” Journal of Manufacturing Processes 36 (2018): 60–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.09.011 – reference: Rumble, J. R. Jr., ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 100th Ed. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2019). – reference: SheridanL. , GockelJ. E. , and Scott-EmuakporO. E. , “Primary Processing Parameters, Porosity Production, and Fatigue Prediction for Additively Manufactured Alloy 718,” Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance 28 (2019): 5387–5397, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-019-04305-7 – reference: AnderssonJ.-O. , HelanderT. , HöglundL. , ShiP. , and SundmanB. , “Thermo-Calc & DICTRA, Computational Tools for Materials Science,” Calphad 26 (2002): 273–312, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0364-5916(02)00037-8 – reference: TangM. and PistoriusP. C. , “Fatigue Life Prediction for AlSi10Mg Components Produced by Selective Laser Melting,” International Journal of Fatigue 125 (2019): 479–490, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2019.04.015 – reference: SheridanL. , Scott-EmuakporO. E. , GeorgeT. , and GockelJ. E. , “Relating Porosity to Fatigue Failure in Additively Manufactured Alloy 718,” Materials Science and Engineering: A 727 (2018): 170–176, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.04.075 – reference: National Institute of Standards and Technology, “DeskTop Spectrum Analyzer-II (DTSA-II): Introduction,” http://web.archive.org/web/20191030175906/https://cstl.nist.gov/div837/837.02/epq/dtsa2/ – reference: GongH. , RafiK. , GuH. , StarrT. , and StuckerB. , “Analysis of Defect Generation in Ti–6Al–4V Parts Made Using Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing Processes,” Additive Manufacturing 1 (2014): 87–98, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2014.08.002 – reference: JoysJ. , “Production of Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Powder,” in ASM Handbook, Volume 7: Powder Metallurgy, ed. SamalP. and NewkirkJ. (Metals Park, OH: ASM International, 2015), 569–580, https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.hb.v07.a0006065 – reference: LéopoldG. , NadotY. , BillaudeauT. , and MendezJ. , “Influence of Artificial and Casting Defects on Fatigue Strength of Moulded Components in Ti-6Al-4V Alloy,” Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures 38 (2015): 1026–1041, https://doi.org/10.1111/ffe.12326 – reference: TangM. and PistoriusP. C. , “Oxides, Porosity and Fatigue Performance of AlSi10Mg Parts Produced by Selective Laser Melting,” International Journal of Fatigue 94 (2017): 192–201, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2016.06.002 – reference: LudwigT. , Di SabatinoM. , ArnbergL. , and DispinarD. , “Influence of Oxide Additions on the Porosity Development and Mechanical Properties of A356 Aluminium Alloy Castings,” International Journal of Metalcasting 6, no. 2 (April 2012): 41–50, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03355526 – reference: GockelJ. , SheridanL. , KoerperB. , and WhipB. , “The Influence of Additive Manufacturing Processing Parameters on Surface Roughness and Fatigue Life,” International Journal of Fatigue 124 (2019): 380–388, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2019.03.025 – reference: JohanssonT. I. , LundT. B. , and ÖlundP. L. J. , “A Review of Swedish Bearing Steel Manufacturing and Quality Assurance of Steel Products,” Journal of ASTM International 3, no. 10 (2006): 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1520/JAI14022 – reference: AmanoH. , YamaguchiY. , SasakiT. , SatoT. , IshimotoT. , and NakanoT. , “Effect of Oxygen Concentration on the Generation of Spatter during Fabrication via Selective Laser Melting,” Journal of Smart Processing 18 (2019): 102–105, https://doi.org/10.7791/jspmee.8.102 – reference: BidareP. , BitharasI. , WardR. M. , AttallahM. M. , and MooreA. J. , “Fluid and Particle Dynamics in Laser Powder Bed Fusion,” Acta Materialia 142 (2018): 107–120. – reference: AlexanderM. R. , ThompsonG. E. , and BeamsonG. , “Characterization of the Oxide/Hydroxide Surface of Aluminium Using X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy: A Procedure for Curve Fitting the O 1s Core Level,” Surface and Interface Analysis 29 (2000): 468–477, https://doi.org/10.1002/1096-9918(200007)29:7<468::AID-SIA890>3.0.CO;2-V – reference: MillsK. N. , Recommended Values of Thermophysical Properties for Selected Commercial Alloys (Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing, 2002). – reference: SteinbergerR. L. and TreybalR. E. , “Mass Transfer from a Solid Soluble Sphere to a Flowing Liquid Stream,” AIChE Journal 6 (1960): 227–232, https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690060213 – reference: WriedtH. A. , “The (Al-O) (Aluminum-Oxygen) System,” Bulletin of Alloy Phase Diagrams 6, no. 6 (1985): 548–553, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02887157 – reference: KhairallahS. A. , AndersonA. T. , RubenchikA. , and KingW. E. , “Laser Powder-Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing: Physics of Complex Melt Flow and Formation Mechanisms of Pores, Spatter, and Denudation Zones,” Acta Materialia 108 (2016): 36–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.014 – reference: SasaiK. and MuzikamaY. , “Reoxidation Behavior of Molten Steel in Tundish,” ISIJ International 40 (2000): 40–47, https://doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.40.40 – reference: BirdR. B. , LightfootE. N. , and StewartW. E. , Transport Phenomena, Revised 2nd Ed. (New York: Wiley, 2007). – reference: CampbellJ. , “An Overview of the Effects of Bifilms on the Structure and Properties of Cast Alloys,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B 37 (2006): 857–863, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02735006 – reference: PottlacherG. , HosaeusH. , KaschnitzE. , and SeifterA. , “Thermophysical Properties of Solid and Liquid Inconel 718 Alloy,” Scandinavian Journal of Metallurgy 31 (2002): 161–168, https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0692.2002.310301.x – reference: SzekelyJ. , EvansJ. W. , and SohnH. Y. , Solid-Gas Reactions (New York: Academic Press, 1976). – reference: GlueckaufE. , “Formulae for Diffusion into Spheres and Their Application to Chromatography,” Transactions of the Faraday Society 51 (1955): 1540–1551. – reference: Standard Practice for Calculation of Mean Sizes/Diameters and Standard Deviations of Particle Size Distributions, ASTM E2578−07(2018) (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, approved January 1, 2018), https://doi.org/10.1520/E2578-07R18 – reference: LloydA. C. , NoëlJ. J. , McIntyreS. , and ShoesmithD. W. , “Cr, Mo and W Alloying Additions in Ni and Their Effect on Passivity,” Electrochimica Acta 49 (2004): 3015–3027, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2004.01.061 |
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| Snippet | Fatigue cracks grow from pores at the surface of components that were produced by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). In AlSi10Mg components produced by LPBF,... |
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| StartPage | 45 |
| SubjectTerms | Fatigue Manufacturing Engineering Materials & Manufacturing Processes Oxidation Oxide Inclusions Porosity Spatter |
| TableOfContents | 4.1 Introduction
4.2 Possible Oxide Sources
4.3 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References |
| Title | Origin of Oxides and Oxide-Related Pores in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Parts |
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